Counting Blessings Versus Burdens: An Experimental Investigation of
Gratitude and Subjective Well-Being in Daily Life
Robert A. Emmons
University of California, Davis
Michael E. McCullough
University of Miami
The effect of a grateful outlook on psychological and physical well-being was examined. In Studies 1
and 2, participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 experimental conditions (hassles, gratitude listing,
and either neutral life events or social comparison); they then kept weekly (Study 1) or daily (Study 2)
records of their moods, coping behaviors, health behaviors, physical symptoms, and overall life apprais-
als. In a 3rd study, persons with neuromuscular disease were randomly assigned to either the gratitude
condition or to a control condition. The gratitude-outlook groups exhibited heightened well-being across
several, though not all, of the outcome measures across the 3 studies, relative to the comparison groups.
The effect on positive affect appeared to be the most robust finding. Results suggest that a conscious
focus on blessings may have emotional and interpersonal benefits.
Reflect on your present blessings, on which every man has many, not
on your past misfortunes, of which all men have some.
—Charles Dickens (M. Dickens, 1897, p. 45)
The construct of gratitude has inspired considerable interest in
the general public. The prevalence of books targeted to general
audiences on the topic (Breathnach, 1996; Hay, 1996; Miller,
1995; Ryan, 1999; Steindl-Rast, 1984; Turner, 1998; Van Kaam &
Muto, 1993) testify to this concept’s widespread appeal. Following
a similar format, these popular books generally consist of reflec-
tions on the value of gratefulness, along with strategies for culti-
vating an attitude of gratitude. The essential message of these
volumes is that a life oriented around gratefulness is the panacea
for insatiable yearnings and life’s ills. Grateful responses to life,
we are told, can lead to peace of mind, happiness, physical health,
and deeper, more satisfying personal relationship