© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-1 1 Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................1-1 1.2 Major Energy Sources .........................................................1-2 1.3 Electric Power Generation Limitations .............................1-4 1.4 Electric Power Generation..................................................1-5 1.5 From Electric Generators to Electric Loads ......................1-8 1.6 Summary............................................................................1-12 References .....................................................................................1-12 1.1 Introduction Energy is defined as the capacity of a body to do mechanical work. Intelligent harnessing and control of energy determines essentially the productivity and, subsequently, the lifestyle advancement of society. Energy is stored in nature in quite a few forms, such as fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas), solar radiation, and in tidal, geothermal, and nuclear forms. Energy is not stored in nature in electrical form. However, electric energy is easy to transmit at long distances and complies with customer’s needs through adequate control. More than 30% of energy is converted into electrical energy before usage, most of it through electric generators that convert mechan- ical energy into electric energy. Work and energy have identical units. The fundamental of energy unity is a joule, which represents the work of a force of a Newton in moving a body through a distance of 1 m along the direction of force (1 J = 1 N × 1 m). Electric power is the electric energy rate; its fundamental unit is a watt (1 W = 1 J/sec). More commonly, electric energy is measured in kilowatthours (kWh): (1.1) Thermal energy is usually measured in calories. By definition, 1 cal is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 15 to 16°C. The kilocalorie is even more common (1 kcal = 103 cal). As energy is a unified concept, as expected, the joule and calorie are directly proportional: (1.2) A larger unit for thermal energy is the British thermal unit (Btu): (1.3) 1 3 6 106 . kWh J = × 1 4 186 . cal J = 1 1 055 252 , BTU J cal = = © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-2 Synchronous Generators A still larger unit is the quad (quadrillion Btu): (1.4) In the year 2000, the world used about 16 × 1012 kWh of energy, an amount above most projections (Figure 1.1). An annual growth of 3.3 to 4.3% was typical for world energy consumption in the 1990 to 2000 period. A slightly lower rate is forecasted for the next 30 years. Besides annual energy usage (and growth rate), with more than 30 to 40% of total energy being converted into electrical energy, it is equally important to evaluate and predict the electric power peaks for each country (region), as they determine the electric generation reserves. The peak electric power in the United States over several years is shown in Figure 1.2. Peak power demands tend to be more dynamic than energy needs; thus, electric energy planning becomes an even more difficult task. Implicitly, the transients and stability in the electric energy (power) systems of the future tend to be more severe. To meet these demands, we need to look at the main energy sources: their availability, energy density, the efficiency of the energy conversion to thermal to mechanical to electrical energy, and their secondary ecological effects (limitations). 1.2 Major Energy Sources With the current annual growth in energy consumption, the fossil fuel supplies of the world will be depleted in, at best, a few hundred years, unless we switch to other sources of energy or use energy conservation to tame energy consumption without compromising quality of life. The estimated world reserves of fossil fuel [1] and their energy density are shown in Table 1.1. With a doubling time of energy consumption of 14 years, if only coal would be used, the whole coal reserve would be depleted in about 125 years. Even if the reserves of fossil fuels were large, their predominant or exclusive usage is not feasible due to environmental, economical, and even political reasons. Alternative energy sources are to be used increasingly, with fossil fuels used slightly less, gradually, and more efficiently than today. The relative cost of electric energy in 1991 from different sources is shown in Table 1.2. Wind energy conversion is becoming cost-competitive, while it is widespread and has limited envi- ronmental impact. Unfortunately, its output is not steady, and thus, very few energy consumers rely solely FIGURE 1.1 Typical annual world energy requirements. 25 20 History Reference case Projections Low economic growth 15 10 Trillion kilowatthours 5 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1 10 1 055 10 15 18 . quad BTU J = = × © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1-3 on wind to meet their electric energy demands. As, in general, the electric power plants are connected in local or regional power grids with regulated voltage and frequency, connecting large wind generator parks to them may produce severe transients that have to be taken care of by sophisticated control systems with energy storage elements, in most cases. By the year 2005, more than 20,000 megawatts (MW) of wind power generators will be in place, with much of it in the United States. The total wind power resources of the planet are estimated at 15,000 terra watthours (TWh), so much more work in this area is to be expected in the near future. Another indirect means of using solar energy, besides wind energy, is to harness energy from the stream-flow part of the hydrological natural cycle. The potential energy of water is transformed into kinetic energy by a hydraulic turbine that drives an electric generator. The total hydropower capacity of the world is about 3 × 1012 W. Only less than 9% of it is used today, because many regions with the greatest potential have economic problems. FIGURE 1.2 Peak electric power demand in the United States and its exponential predictions. TABLE 1.1 Estimated Fossil Fuel Reserves Fuel Estimated Reserves Energy Density in Watthours (Wh) Coal 7.6 ×1012 metric tons 937 per ton Petroleum 2 × 1012 barrels 168 per barrel Natural gas 1016 ft3 0.036 per ft3 TABLE 1.2 Cost of Electric Energy Energy Source Cents/kWh Gas (in high-efficiency combined cycle gas turbines) 3.4–4.2 Coal 5.2–6 Nuclear 7.4–6.7 Wind 4.3–7.7 600 Estimated growth P0 ebt approximation P0 = 380 MW b = 0.0338 year–1 500 400 300 200 100 Year t Peak demand, Gw © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-4 Synchronous Generators Despite initial high costs, the costs of generating energy from water are low, resources are renewable, and there is limited ecological impact. Therefore, hydropower is up for a new surge. Tidal energy is obtained by filling a bay, closed by a dam, during periods of high tides and emptying it during low-tide time intervals. The hydraulic turbine to be used in tidal power generation should be reversible so that tidal power is available twice during each tidal period of 12 h and 25 min. Though the total tidal power is evaluated at 64 × 1012 W, its occurrence in short intervals requires large rating turbine-generator systems which are still expensive. The energy burst cannot be easily matched with demand unless large storage systems are built. These demerits make many of us still believe that the role of tidal energy in world demand will be very limited, at least in the near future. However, exploiting submarine currents energy in windlike low-speed turbines may be feasible. Geothermal power is obtained by extracting the heat inside the earth. With a 25% conversion ratio, the useful geothermal electric power is estimated to 2.63 × 1010 MWh. Fission and fusion are two forms of nuclear energy conversion that produce heat. Heat is converted to mechanical power in steam turbines that drive electric generators to produce electrical energy. Only fission-splitting nuclei of a heavy element such as uranium 235 are used commercially to produce a good percentage of electric power, mostly in developed countries. As uranium 235 is in scarce supply, uranium 238 is converted into fissionable plutonium by absorbing neutrons. One gram of uranium 238 will produce about 8 × 1010 J of heat. The cost of nuclear energy is still slightly higher than that of coal or gas (Table 1.2). The environmental problems with disposal of expended nuclear fuel by-products or with potential reactor explosions make nuclear energy tough for the public to accept. Fusion power combinations of light nuclei, such as deuterium and tritium, at high temperatures and pressures, are scientifically feasible but not yet technically proven for efficient energy conversion. Solar radiation may be used either through heat solar collectors or through direct conversion to electricity in photovoltaic cells. From an average of 1 kW/m2 of solar radiation, less than 180 W/m2 could be converted to electricity with current solar cells. Small energy density and nonuniform availability (mainly during sunny days) lead to a higher cents/kWh rate than that of other sources. 1.3 Electric Power Generation Limitations Factors limiting electric energy conversion are related to the availability of various fuels, technical constraints, and ecological, social, and economical issues. Ecological limitations include those due to excess low-temperature heat and carbon dioxide (solid particles) and oxides of sulfur nitrogen emissions from fuel burning. Low-temperature heat exhaust is typical in any thermal energy conversion. When too large, this heat increases the earth’s surface temperature and, together with the emission of carbon dioxide and certain solid particles, has intricate effects on the climate. Global warming and climate changes appear to be caused by burning too much fossil fuel. Since the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl incidents, safe nuclear electric energy production has become not only a technical issue, but also an ever-increasing social (public acceptance) problem. Even hydro- and wind-energy conversion pose some environmental problems, though much smaller than those from fossil or nuclear fuel–energy conversion. We refer to changes in flora and fauna due to hydro–dams intrusion in the natural habitat. Big windmill farms tend to influence the fauna and are sometimes considered “ugly” to the human eye. Consequently, in forecasting the growth of electric energy consumption on Earth, we must consider all of these complex limiting factors. Shifting to more renewable energy sources (wind, hydro, tidal, solar, etc.), while using combined heat–electricity production from fossil fuels to increase the energy conversion factor, together with intelligent energy conservation, albeit complicated, may be the only way to increase material prosperity and remain in harmony with the environment. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1-5 1.4 Electric Power Generation Electric energy (power) is produced by coupling a prime mover that converts the mechanical energy (called a turbine) to an electrical generator, which then converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy (Figure 1.3a through Figure 1.3e). An intermediate form of energy is used for storage in the electrical generator. This is the so-called magnetic energy, stored mainly between the stator (primary) and rotor (secondary). The main types of “turbines” or prime movers are as follows: FIGURE 1.3 The most important ways to produce electric energy: (a) fossil fuel thermoelectric energy conversion, (b) diesel-engine electric generator, (c) IC engine electric generator, (d) hydro turbine electric generator, and (e) wind turbine electric generator. Fuel Fuel handler Boiler Turbine (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Electric generator Electric energy Diesel fuel Diesel engine Electric generator Electric energy Gas fuel IC engine Electric generator Electric energy Hydraulic turbine Tidal energy or: Penstock Water reservoir Electric generator Electric energy Potential energy Transmission Wind energy Wind turbine Electric generator Electric energy © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-6 Synchronous Generators • Steam turbines • Gas turbines • Hydraulic turbines • Wind turbines • Diesel engines • Internal combustion (IC) engines The self-explanatory Figure 1.3 illustrates the most used technologies to produce electric energy. They all use a prime mover that outputs mechanical energy. There are also direct electric energy production methods that avoid the mechanical energy stage, such as photovoltaic, thermoelectric, and electrochem- ical (fuel cells) technologies. As they do not use electric generators, and still represent only a tiny part of all electric energy produced on Earth, discussion of these methods falls beyond the scope of this book. The steam (or gas) turbines in various configurations make use of practically all fossil fuels, from coal to natural gas and oil and nuclear fuel to geothermal energy inside the earth. Usually, their efficiency reaches 40%, but in a combined cycle (producing heat and mechanical power), their efficiency recently reached 55 to 60%. Powers per unit go as high 100 MW and more at 3000 (3600 rpm) but, for lower powers, in the MW range, higher speeds are feasible to reduce weight (volume) per power. Recently, low-power high-speed gas turbines (with combined cycles) in the range of 100 kW at 70,000 to 80,000 rpm became available. Electric generators to match this variety of powers and speeds were also recently produced. Such electric generators are also used as starting motors for jet engines. High speed, low volume and weight, and reliability are key issues for electric generators on board aircraft. Power ranges are from hundreds of kilowatts to 1 MW in large aircraft. On ships or trains, electric generators are required either to power the electric propulsion motors or for multiple auxiliary needs. Diesel engines (Figure 1.3b) drive the electric generators on board ships and trains. In vehicles, electric energy is used for various tasks for powers up to a few tens of kilowatts, in general. The internal combustion (or diesel) engine drives an electric generator (alternator) directly or through a belt transmission (Figure 1.3c). The ever-increasing need for more electric power in vehicles to perform various tasks — from lighting to engine start-up and from door openers to music devices and windshield wipers and cooling blowers — poses new challenges for creators of electric generators of the future. Hydraulic potential energy is converted to mechanical potential energy in hydraulic energy turbines. They, in turn, drive electric generators to produce electric energy. In general, the speed of hydraulic turbines is rather low — below 500 rpm, but in many cases, below 100 rpm. The speed depends on the water head and flow rate. High water head leads to higher speed, while high flow rate leads to lower speeds. Hydraulic turbines for low, medium, and high water heads were perfected in a few favored embodiments (Kaplan, Pelton, Francis, bulb type, Strafflo, etc.). With a few exceptions — in Africa, Asia, Russia, China, and South America — many large power/unit water energy reservoirs were provided with hydroelectric power plants with large power potentials (in the hundreds and thousands of megawatts). Still, by 1990, only 15% of the world’s 624,000 MW reserves were put to work. However, many smaller water energy reservoirs remain untapped. They need small FIGURE 1.4 Single transmission in a multiple power plant — standard power grid. Transmission power line Power plant 1 Step-up trafo Step-down trafo to medium voltage Step-down trafos to low voltage Loads Distribution power line Step-up trafo Power plant 2 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1-7 hydrogenerators with power below 5 MW at speeds of a few hundred revolutions per minute. In many locations, tens of kilowatt microhydrogenerators are more appropriate [2–5]. The time for small and microhydroenergy plants has finally come, especially in Europe and North America, where there are less remaining reserves. Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 show the world use of hydro energy in tWh in 1997 [6,7]. The World Energy Council estimated that by 1990, of a total electric energy demand of 12,000 TWh, about 18.5% was contributed by hydro. By 2020, the world electric energy demand is estimated to be 23,000 TWh. From this, if only 50% of all economically feasible hydroresources were put to work, in 2020, hydro would contribute 28% of total electric energy demands. These numbers indicate that a new era of dynamic hydroelectric power development is to come soon, if the world population desires more energy (prosperity for more people) with a small impact on the environment (constant or less greenhouse emission effects). Wind energy reserves, though discontinuous and unevenly distributed, mostly around shores, are estimated at four times the electric energy needs of today. To its uneven distribution, its discontinuity, and some surmountable public concerns about fauna and human habitats, we have to add the technical sophistication and costs required to control, store, and distribute wind electric energy. These are the obstacles to the widespread use of wind energy, from its current tiny 20,000 MW installation in the world. For comparison, more than 100,000 MW of hydropower reserves are tapped today in the world. But ambitious plans are in the works, with the European Union planning to install 10,000 MW between 2000 and 2010. The power per unit for hydropower increased to 4 MW and, for wind turbines, it increased up to 5 MW. More are being designed, but as the power per unit increases, the speed decreases to 10 to 24 rpm or less. This poses an extraordinary problem: either use a special transmission and a high-speed generator or build a direct-driven low-speed generator. Both solutions have merits and demerits. The lowest speeds in hydrogenerators are, in general, above 50 rpm, but at much higher powers and, thus, much higher rotor diameters, which still lead to good performance. Preserving high performance at 1 to 5 MW and less at speeds below 30 rpm in an electric generator poses serious challenges, but better materials, high-energy permanent magnets, and ingenious designs are likely to facilitate solving these problems. TABLE 1.3 World Hydro Potential by Region (in TWh) Gross Economic Feasible Europe 5,584 2,070 1,655 Asia 13,399 3,830 3,065 Africa 3,634 2,500 2,000 America 11,022 4,500 3,600 Oceania 592 200 160 Total 34,231 13,100 10,480 TABLE 1.4 Proportion of Hydro Already Developed Africa 6% South and Central America 18% Asia 18% Oceania 22% North America 55% Europe 65% Source: Adapted from World Energy Council. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-8 Synchronous Generators It is planned that wind energy will produce more than 10% of electric energy by 2020. This means that wind energy technologies and businesses are apparently entering a revival — this time with sophis- ticated control and flexibility provided by high-performance power electronics. 1.5 From Electric Generators to Electric Loads Electric generators traditionally operate in large power grids — with many of them in parallel to provide voltage and frequency stability to changing load demands — or they stand alone. The conventional large power grid supplies most electric energy needs and consists of electric power plants, transmission lines, and distribution systems (Figure 1.4). Multiple power plants, many transmission power lines, and complicated distribution lines constitute a real regional or national power grid. Such large power grids with a pyramidal structure — generation to transmission to distribution and billing — are now in place, and to connect a generator to such a system implies complying with strict rules. The rules and standards are necessary to provide quality power in terms of continuity, voltage and frequency constancy, phase symmetry, faults treatment, and so forth. The thoughts of the bigger the unit, the more stable the power supply seem to be the driving force behind building such huge “machine systems.” The bigger the power or unit, the higher the energy efficiency, was for decades the rule that led to steam generators of up to 1500 MW and hydrogenerators up to 760 MW. However, investments in new power plants, redundant transmission power lines, and distribution systems, did not always keep up with ever-increasing energy demands. This is how blackouts developed. Aside from extreme load demands or faults, the stability of power grids is limited mainly by the fact that existing synchronous electric generators work only at synchronism, that is, at a speed n1 rigidly related to frequency f1 of voltage f1 = n1 × p1. Standard power grids are served exclusively by synchronous generators and have a pyramidal structure (Figure 1.5a and Figure 1.5b) called utility. Utilities still run, in most places, the entire process from generation to retail settlement. Today, the electricity market is deregulating at various paces in different parts of the world, though the process must be considered still in its infancy. The new unbundled value chain (Figure 1.5b) breaks out the functions into the basic types: electric power plants; energy network owners and operators; energy traders, breakers, and exchanges; and energy service providers and retailers [8,9]. The hope is to stimulate competition for energy cost reduction while also improving the quality of power delivered to end users, by developing and utilizing sustainable technologies that are more environmentally friendly. Increasing the number of players requires clear rules FIGURE 1.5 (a) Standard value chain power grid and (b) unbundled value chain. Transmission Distribution Loads Primary energy source Generation Energy network owners and operators (a) (b) Energy traders, brokers and exchanges Energy service providers and resellers Generation © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1-9 of the game to be set. Also, the transient stresses on such a power grid, with many energy suppliers entering, exiting, or varying their input, are likely to be more severe. To counteract such a difficulty, more flexible power transmission lines were proposed and introduced in a few locations (mostly in the United States) under the logo “FACTS” (flexible alternating current [AC] transmission systems) [10]. FACTS introduces controlled reactive power capacitors in the power transmission lines in parallel for higher voltage stability (short-term voltage support), and in series for larger flow management in the long term (Figure 1.6). Power electronics at high power and voltage levels is the key technology to FACTS. FACTS also includes the AC–DC–AC power transmission lines to foster stability and reduce losses in energy transport over large distances (Figure 1.7). The direct current (DC) high-voltage large power bus allows for parallel connection of energy providers with only voltage control; thus, the power grid becomes more flexible. However, this flexibility occurs at the price of full-power high-voltage converters that take advantage of the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technologies. Still, most electric generators are synchronous machines that need tight (rigid) speed control to provide constant frequency output voltage. To connect such generators in parallel, the speed controllers (gover- nors) have to allow for a speed drop in order to produce balanced output of all generators. Of course, frequency also varies with load, but this variation is limited to less than 0.5 Hz. FIGURE 1.6 FACTS: series parallel compensator. FIGURE 1.7 AC–DC–AC power cable transmission system. Intermediate transformer Intermediate transformer Multilevel inverter Multilevel inverter 138 kV Shunt Series Generator AC AC AC DC Cable Step-up transformer High voltage high power rectifier High voltage, high power inverter © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-10 Synchronous Generators Variable-speed constant voltage and frequency generators with decoupled active and reactive power control would make the power grids naturally more stable and more flexible. The doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) with three-phase pulse-width modulator (PWM) bidi- rectional converter in the three-phase rotor circuit supplied through brushes and slip rings does just that (Figure 1.8). DFIG works as a synchronous machine. Fed in the rotor in AC at variable frequency f2, and operating at speed n, it delivers power at the stator frequency f1: (1.5) where 2p1 is the number of poles of stator and rotor windings. The frequency f2 is considered positive when the phase sequence in the rotor is the same as that in the stator and negative otherwise. In the conventional synchronous generator, f2 = 0 (DC). DFIG is capable of working at f2 = 0 and at f2 <> 0. With a bidirectional power converter, DFIG may work both as motor and generator with f2 negative and positive — that is, at speeds lower and larger than that of the standard synchronous machine. Starting is initiated from the rotor, with the stator temporarily short- circuited, then opened. Then, the machine is synchronized and operated as a motor or a generator. The “synchronization” is feasible at all speeds within the design range (±20%, in general). So, not only the generating mode but also the pumping mode are available, in addition to flexibility in fast active and reactive power control. Pump storage is used to store energy during off-peak hours and is then used for generation during peak hours at a total efficiency around 70% in large head hydropower plants. DFIG units up to 400 MW with about ±5% speed variation were put to work in Japan, and more recently (in 300 MW units) in Germany. The converter rating is about equal to the speed variation range, which noticeably limits the costs. Pump storage plants with conventional synchronous machines working as motors have been in place for a few decades. DFIG, however, provides the optimum speed for pumping, which, for most hydroturbines, is different than that for generating. While fossil-fuel DFIGs may be very good for power grids because of stability improvements, they are definitely the solution when pump storage is used and for wind generators above 1 MW per unit. Will DFIG gradually replace the omnipresent synchronous generators in bulk electric energy conver- sion? Most likely, yes, because the technology is currently in use up to 400 MW/unit. At the distribution (local) stage (Figure 1.5b), a new structure is gaining ground: the distributed power system (DPS). This refers to low-power energy providers that can meet or supplement some local power needs. DPS is expected to either work alone or be connected at the distribution stage to existing systems. It is to be based on renewable resources, such as wind, hydro, and biomass, or may integrate gas turbine generators or diesel engine generators, solar panels, or fuel cells. Powers in the orders of 1 to 2 MW, possibly up to 5 MW, per unit energy conversion are contemplated. FIGURE 1.8 Variable-speed constant voltage and frequency generator. Prime mover (turbine) V2 - variable f2 - variable V1 - constant f1 - constant Step-up transformer To power grid Adaptation transformer secondary 2p poles Bidirectional PWM converter Stator f np f 1 1 2 = + © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1-11 DPSs are to be provided with all means of control, stability, and power quality, that are so typical to conventional power grids. But, there is one big difference: they will make full use of power electronics to provide fast and robust active and reactive power control. Here, besides synchronous generators with electromagnetic excitation, permanent magnet (PM) syn- chronous as well as cage-rotor induction generators and DFIGs, all with power electronics control for variable speed operation, are already in place in quite a few applications. But, their widespread usage is only about to take place. Stand-alone electric power generation directly ties the electric energy generator to the load. Stand- alone systems may have one generator only (such as on board trains and standby power groups for automobiles) or may have two to four such generators, such as on board large aircraft or vessels. Stand- alone gas-turbine residential generators are also investigated for decentralized electricity production. Stand-alone generators and their control are tightly related to application, from design to the embod- iment of control and protection. Vehicular generators have to be lightweight and efficient, in this order. Standby (backup) power groups for hospitals, banks, telecommunications, and so forth, have to be quickly available, reliable, efficient, and environmentally friendly. Backup power generators are becoming a must in public buildings, as all now use clusters of computers. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) that are battery or fuel cell based, all with power electronics controls, are also used at lower powers. They do not include electric generators and, therefore, fall beyond the scope of our discussion. Electric generators or motors are also used for mechanical energy storage, “inertial batteries” (Figure 1.9) in vacuum, with magnetic suspension to enable the storage of energy for minutes to hours. Speeds up to 1 km/sec (peripheral speed with composite material flywheels) at costs of $400 to $800 per kilowatt ($50 to $100 per kilowatt for lead acid batteries) for an operation life of over 20 years (3 to 5 years for lead acid batteries) [11] are feasible today. PM synchronous generators or motors are ideal for uses at rotational speeds preferably around 40 krpm, for the 3 to 300 kW range and less for the megawatt range. FIGURE 1.9 Typical flywheel battery. End plate Radial magnetic bearing Generator/motor PMs on the rotor Housing Composite flywheel Titanium rotor shaft Radial/axial magnetic bearing End plate © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1-12 Synchronous Generators Satellites, power quality (for active power control through energy storage), hybrid buses, trains (to store energy during braking), and electromagnetic launchers, are typical applications for storage generator and motor systems. The motoring mode is used to reaccelerate the flywheel (or charge the inertial battery) via power electronics. Energy storage up to 500 MJ (per unit) is considered practical for applications that (at 50 Wh/kg density or more) need energy delivered in seconds or minutes at a time, for the duration of a power outage. As most (80%) power line disturbances last for less than 5 sec, flywheel batteries can fill up this time with energy as a standby power source. Though very promising, electrochemical and superconduct- ing coil energy storage fall beyond the scope or our discussion here. 1.6 Summary The above introductory study leads to the following conclusions: • Electric energy demand is on the rise (at a rate of 2 to 3% per annum), but so are the environmental and social constraints on the electric energy technologies. • Renewable resource input is on the rise — especially wind and hydro, at powers of up to a few megawatts per unit. • Single-value power grids will change to bundled valued chains as electric energy opens to markets. • Electric generators should work at variable speeds, but provide constant voltage and frequency output via power electronics with full or partial power ratings, in order to tap more energy from renewable resources and provide faster and safer reactive power control. • The standard synchronous generator, working at constant speed for constant frequency output, is challenged by the doubly fed induction generator at high to medium power (from hundreds of megawatts to 1 to 2 MW) and by the PM synchronous generator and the induction generator with full power bidirectional power electronics in the stator up to 1 MW. • Most variable-speed generators with bidirectional power electronics control will also allow motor- ing (or starting) operation in both conventional or distributed power grids and in stand-alone (or vehicular) applications. • Home and industrial combined heat and electricity generation by burning gas in high-speed gas turbines requires special electric generators with adequate power electronics digital control. • In view of such a wide power and unit and applications range, a classification of electric generators seems to be in order. This is the subject of Chapter 2. References 1. B. Sadden, Hydropower development in southern and southeastern Asia, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 22, 3, March, 2002, pp. 5–11. 2. J.A. Veltrop, Future of dams, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 22, 3, March, 2002, pp. 12–18. 3. H.M. Turanli, Preparation for the next generation at Manitoba Hydro, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 22, 3, March, 2002, pp. 19–23. 4. O. Unver, Southeastern Anatolia development project, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 22, 3, March, 2002, pp. 10–11, 23–24. 5. H. Yang, and G. Yao, Hydropower development in Southern China, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 22, 3, March, 2002, pp. 16–18. 6. T.J. Hammons, J.C. Boyer, S.R. Conners, M. Davies, M. Ellis, M. Fraser, E.A. Nolt, and J. Markard, Renewable energy alternatives for developed countries, IEEE Trans., EC-15, 4, 2000, pp. 481–493. 7. T.J. Hammons, B.K. Blyden, A.C. Calitz, A.G. Gulstone, E.I. Isekemanga, R. Johnstone, K. Paleku, N.N. Simang, and F. Taher, African electricity infrastructure interconnection and electricity exchanges, IEEE Trans., EC-15, 4, 2000, pp. 470–480. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy and Electric Generators 1-13 8. C. Lewiner, Business and technology trends in the global utility industries, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 21, 12, 2001, pp. 7–9. 9. M. Baygen, A vision of the future grid, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 21, 12, 2001, pp. 10–12. 10. A. Edris, FACTS technology development: an update, IEEE Power Eng. Rev., 20, 3, 2000, pp. 4–9. 11. R. Hebner, J. Beno, and A. Walls, Flywheel batteries come around again, IEEE-Spectrum, 39, 4, 2002, pp. 46–51.