Empire of Japan ????? Dai Nippon Teikoku Empire of Greater Japan ↓ 1868–1945 ↓ Flag Imperial Seal Anthem "Kimi ga Yo" "Imperial Reign" Japanese Empire in 1931. Capital Tokyo Religion State Shinto Government Theocratic absolute monarchy(1868-1888), constitutional monarchy(1889-1931), Military dictatorship(1932-1945) Emperor - 1868–1912 Emperor Meiji - 1912–1926 Emperor Taishō - 1926–1945 Emperor Shōwa Prime Minister - 1885-1888, 1892-1896, 1898, 1900-1901 Itō Hirobumi - 1888-1889 Kuroda Kiyotaka - 1889-1891 Yamagata Aritomo - 1906-1908, 1911-1912 Saionji Kinmochi - 1901-1906, 1908-1911 Katsura Tarō - 1913-1914, 1923-1924 Yamamoto Gonnohyōe History - Meiji Restoration January 3, 1868[1] - Prefecture reform August 29, 1871 - Constitution November 29, 1890 - Surrender September 2, 1945 Area 675,000 km² (260,619 sq mi) Population - est. 97,770,000 Density 144.8 /km² (375.1 / sq mi) Currency Japanese yen Korean yen Taiwanese yen Japanese military yen Preceded by Succeeded by Tokugawa shogunate Ryūkyū Kingdom Republic of Ezo Republic of Taiwan (1895) Russian Empire Korean Empire Occupation of Japan United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands Republic of China Soviet Union North Korea South Korea 1935 Population. Map and area are information before WWII. The Empire of Japan (Kyūjitai: ?????; Shinji- tai: ?????; pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku; literally Great Imperial Japan or Great Empire of Japan, officially Great Japan, Empire of Greater Japan or Greater Japanese Empire; more widely known as Imperial Japan or the Japanese Empire) was a Japanese political entity that existed during the period from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until its defeat in World War II in 1945. The country’s rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei (???? , "Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Army"), led to its emergence as a world power eventually culminating with its membership in the Axis alliance and the conquest of a large part of the Asia-Pacific region. Despite several large scale military suc- cesses during the first half of the Pacific War, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 1 the Empire of Japan, after suffering numer- ous defeats as the war progressed, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, surrendered to the Allies on September 2, 1945. A period of occupation by the Allies fol- lowed the surrender and dissolution of the Empire, and a new constitution was created with American involvement. American occu- pation and reconstruction of the country con- tinued well into the 1950s eventually forming the current modern Japan. The Emperors during this time, which spanned the Meiji, Taishō and Shōwa eras, are now known by their posthumous names which coincide with those era names: Emper- or Meiji (Mutsuhito), Emperor Taishō (Yoshi- hito) and Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito). Terminology Although the empire is commonly referred to as "the Japanese Empire" or "Imperial Japan" in English, the literal translation from Kanji is Great Japanese Empire (Dai Nippon Teikoku), meaning in terms of geography: Japan and its surrounding areas. The nomen- clature Empire of Japan had existed since the feudal anti-shogunate domains, Satsuma and Chōshū, which founded their new govern- ment during the Meiji Restoration, with the intention of forming a modern state to resist western domination. Meiji Restoration Samurai members of the First Japanese Em- bassy to Europe (1862), around Shibata Sadataro, head of the mission staff (seated) and Fukuzawa Yukichi (to his right) sign of the opening of Japan and Meiji Restoration. After two centuries, the seclusion policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years had seen increased foreign trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa Shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the humiliating terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement, the sonnō jōi (literally "Revere the Emperor, expel the bar- barians").[2] In March 1863 the "Order to expel barbar- ians" was issued. Although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson by a party of samurai from Satsuma. The British demanded repara- tions and responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863, for his death the Tok- ugawa government agreed to pay an indem- nity.[3] Shelling of foreign shipping in Shi- monoseki and attacks against foreign prop- erty led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864.[4] The Chōshū clan also carried out the failed Hamaguri Rebellion. The Satsuma-Chōshū al- liance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bak- ufu. In early 1867, Emperor Komei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son Mut- suhito (Meiji). On November 9, 1867 Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned his post and authorities to the emperor, agreeing to "be the instru- ment for carrying out" imperial orders.[5] The Tokugawa Shogunate had ended.[6] However, while Yoshinobu’s resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of govern- ment, his apparatus of state continued to ex- ist. Moreover, the shogunal government, the Tokugawa family in particular, would remain a prominent force in the evolving political or- der and would retain many executive powers,[7] a prospect hard-liners from Sat- suma and Chōshū found intolerable.[8] On January 3, 1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the imperial palace in Kyoto, and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the im- perial consultative assembly was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 2 An early tycoon of the Imperial Japanese Army Takamori Saigo. court and tended to support a continued col- laboration with the Tokugawa, Saigō Takamori threatened the assembly into abol- ishing the title "shogun" and order the confis- cation of Yoshinobu’s lands.[9] On January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared "that he would not be bound by the proclama- tion of the Restoration and called on the court to rescind it."[10] On January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series of arsons in Edo, starting with the burning of the outworks of Edo Castle, the main Tokugawa residence. Boshin War The Boshin War (???? ,Boshin Sensō) was fought between January 1868 and May 1869. The alliance of samurai from southern and western domains and court officials had now secured the cooperation of the young Emper- or Meiji who ordered the dissolution of the two-hundred-year-old Tokugawa Shogunate. Tokugawa Yoshinobu launched a military campaign to seize the emperor’s court at Kyoto. However, the tide rapidly turned in Campaign map of the Boshin War (1868–1869). The domains of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa (in red) joined forces to de- feat Shogunate forces at Toba-Fushimi, and then progressively took control of the rest of Japan. favor of the smaller but relatively modernized imperial faction and resulted in defections of many daimyo to the Imperial side; the Battle of Toba-Fushimi being a decisive victory in which a combined army from Chōshū, Tosa and Satsuma domains defeated the Tok- ugawa army. A series of battles were then fought in pursuit of supporters of Shogunate; Edo surrendered to the Imperial forces and afterwards Yoshinobu personally sur- rendered. Yoshinobu was stripped of all his power by Emperor Meiji and most of Japan accepted the emperor’s rule. Pro-Tokugawa remnants, however, then retreated to northern Honshū (Ouetsu Rep- pan Domei) and later to Ezo (present day Hokkaidō), where they established the break- away Republic of Ezo. An expeditionary force was despatched by the new government and the Ezo Republic forces were overwhelmed. The siege of Hakodate came to an end in May 1869 and the remaining forces surrendered. Five Charter Oath The Charter Oath was made public at the en- thronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on April 7, 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 3 during Emperor Meiji’s reign, setting the leg- al stage for Japan’s modernization.[11] The aims of the Meiji leaders were also to boost morale and win financial support for the new government. Its five provisions con- sisted of: • Establishment of deliberative assemblies. • Involvement of all classes in carrying out state affairs. • The revocation of sumptuary laws and class restrictions on employment. • Replacement of "evil customs" with the "just laws of nature". • An international search for knowledge to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule. Meiji era (1868-1912) Emperor Meiji, the first emperor of the Em- pire of Japan (1868–1912) Several prominent writers under the constant threat of assassination from their political foes, such as Fukuzawa Yukichi were influen- tial in convincing Japanese people for west- ernization. For instance some of his works that were well known were "Conditions in the West", "Leaving Asia", and "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization" that detailed Western society and his own philosophies. In the Meiji Merchant Thomas Blake Glover received second highest order of Japan, Order of the Rising Sun with Gold and Silver Star (2nd class) from Emperor Meiji in recognition of his contributions to Japan and its industrialization Restoration period, military and economic power was well emphasized. Military strength became the means for national de- velopment and stability. Imperial Japan be- came the only non-Western world power and a major force in east and southeast Asia in less than 30-50 years as a result of industrial- ization and economic development. As one writer Albrecht Fürst von Urach comments in his booklet "The Secret of Japan’s Strength," which was written during the Axis powers period: “ The rise of Japan to a world power during the past 80 years is the greatest miracle in world history. The mighty empires of antiquity, the major political institutions of the Middle Ages and the early modern era, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, all needed centuries to achieve their full strength. Japan’s rise has been meteoric. After only 80 years, it is one of the few great powers that determine the fate of the world. ” [12] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 4 HIH Princess Kaneko Higashi-fushimi in western clothing The sudden westernization, once it was adopted, changed almost all arenas of Japan- ese society ranging from language, etiquette, clothes, judicial and political system, arma- ments, arts, etc. Japanese government sent students to Western countries to observe and learn their practices as well as paying foreign scholars to come to Japan to educate the populace, the so called "foreign advisors" coming in from variety of studies. For in- stance the judicial system and constitution were largely modeled on that of Germany. It also outlawed customs linked to Japan’s feud- al past, such as displaying and wearing katana in the public and top knot both of which were characteristic of the samurai class, which were abolished all together with the caste system. This would later bring the Meiji government into conflict with the Samurai. Constitution The constitution also recognized the afore- mentioned acknowledgment of a need for ??—"The Emperor’s words" parts of constitution change and modernization after removal of the shogunate: “ We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-ex- tensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and se- cure from decline the ancient form of government...In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clear- ness and distinctness to the instruc- tions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to estab- lish fundamental laws.... ” Imperial Japan was founded, de jure, after the 1889 signing of Constitution of the Em- pire of Japan. The constitution formalized much of its political structure and gave many responsibilities and powers to the Emperor. Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution. Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed. Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy.[13] Although it was in this constitution that the title Empire of Japan was officially used for the first time, it was not until 1936 that From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 5 this title was legalized. Until then, the names "Nippon" (??; Japan), "Dai-Nippon" (???; Greater Japan), "Dai-Nippon/-Nihon Koku" (?? ?; State of Japan), "Nihon Teikoku" (????; Em- pire of Japan) were all used. Economic development Marquis Ōkuma Shigenobu was a Japanese statesman and the 8th (30 June 1898 – 8 November 1898) and 17th (16 April 1914 – 9 October 1916) Prime Minister of Japan. He was an early advocate of Western science and culture in Japan, and founder of Waseda University. The process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi. Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government guided the nation, borrowing technology from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia’s market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mer- cantilistic, importing raw materials and ex- porting finished products — a reflection of Japan’s relative scarcity of raw materials. Economic reforms included a unified mod- ern currency based on the yen, banking, com- mercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conducive to 1 yen convertible silver note issued in 1885 an advanced capitalist economy took time but was completed by the 1890s. By this time, the government had largely relinquished dir- ect control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. Many of the former daimyo, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. The government was initially involved in economic modernization, providing a number of "model factories" to facilitate the trans- ition to the modern period. After the first twenty years of the Meiji period, the industri- al economy expanded rapidly until about 1920 with inputs of advanced Western tech- nology and large private investments. Japan emerged from the Tokugawa-Meiji transition as the first Asian industrialized na- tion. From the onset, the Meiji rulers em- braced the concept of a market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. Rapid growth and structural change characterized Japan’s two periods of economic development after 1868. Initially, the economy grew only moderately and relied heavily on traditional Japanese ag- riculture to finance modern industrial infra- structure. By the time the Russo-Japanese War began in 1904, 65% of employment and 38% of the gross domestic product (GDP) was still based on agriculture, but modern From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 6 industry had begun to expand substantially. By the late 1920s, manufacturing and mining contributed to 23% of GDP, compared with the 21% for all of agriculture. Transportation and communications developed to sustain heavy industrial development. From 1894, Japan built an extensive em- pire that included Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria, and parts of northern China. The Japanese regarded this sphere of influence as a politic- al and economic necessity, preventing for- eign states from strangling Japan by blocking its access to raw materials and crucial sea- lanes. Japan’s large military force was re- garded as essential to the empire’s defense and prosperity through obtaining natural re- sources, which the Japanese islands were lacking in. First Sino-Japanese War First Sino-Japanese War, major battles and troop movements Prior to its engagement in World War I, the Empire of Japan fought in two significant wars after its establishment following the Meiji Revolution. The first was the First Sino- Japanese War, fought between 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty. A peasant rebel- lion led to a request by the Korean Fleet admiral marquis Tōgō Heihachirō. government for China to send troops in to stabilize the region. The Empire of Japan re- sponded by sending their own force to Korea and installing a puppet government in Seoul. China objected and war ensued. In a brief af- fair with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the Liaodong Peninsula, and the near destruction of the Chinese navy in the Battle of the Yalu River, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ceded parts of Manchuria and the is- land of Formosa to Japan (see Taiwan under Japanese rule and Japanese Invasion of Taiwan (1895)). After this war, regional dom- inance shifted from China to Japan. Russo-Japanese War The Russo-Japanese War was a conflict for control of Korea and parts of Manchuria by the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan that took place from 1904 to 1905. The war is sig- nificant as the first modern war where an Asian country defeated a European power. The victory greatly raised Japan’s measure in the world of global politics. The war is marked by the Japanese rebuff of Russian in- terests in Korea, Manchuria, and China, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 7 Greater Manchuria, Russian (outer) Man- churia is region to upper right in lighter Red; Liaodong Peninsula is the wedge extending into the Yellow Sea. Bombardment during the Siege of Port Arthur notably, the Liaodong Peninsula, controlled by the city of Port Arthur. Originally, in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Port Arthur had been given to Japan. This part of the treaty was overruled by Western powers, which gave the port to the Russian Empire, furthering Russian interests in the region. These interests came into conflict with Japanese interests. The war began with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern fleet stationed at Port Arthur, which was followed by the Battle of Port Arthur. Those elements that attempted escape were defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo Hei- hachiro at the Battle of the Yellow Sea. A year later, the Russian Baltic fleet arrived only to be annihilated in the Battle of Tsushi- ma. While the ground war did not fare as poorly for the Russians, the Japanese army was significantly more aggressive than their Russian counterparts and gained a political advantage that accumulated with the Treaty of Portsmouth negotiated in the United States by the American president Theodore Roosevelt. As a result, Russia lost the part of Sakhalin Island south of 50 degrees North latitude (which became the Karafuto Prefec- ture), as well as many mineral rights in Man- churia. In addition, Russia’s defeat cleared the way for Japan to annex Korea outright in 1910. Taishō era (1912-1926) World War I Map of Tsingtao, 1912, prior to the Battle of Tsingtao. Japan entered World War I in 1914, seizing the opportunity of Germany’s distraction with the European War and wanting to expand its sphere of influence in China. Japan declared war on Germany in August 23, 1914 and quickly occupied German-leased territories in China’s Shandong Province as well as the Marianas, Caroline, and Marshall Islands in the Pacific which were part of German New Guinea. The siege of Tsingtao, a swift inva- sion in the German territory of Jiaozhou (Ki- autschou) proved successful and the colonial troops surrendered on 7 November 1914. With its Western allies, notably the United Kingdom, heavily involved in the war in Europe, Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands to China in January 1915. Besides expanding its control over the German holdings, Manchuria, and Inner Mongolia, Japan also sought joint ownership of a major mining and metallurgical complex in central China, prohibitions on China’s From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 8 His Imperial Majesty Emperor Taishō, the second emperor of the Empire of Japan ceding or leasing any coastal areas to a third power, and miscellaneous other political, eco- nomic, and military controls, which, if achieved, would have reduced China to a Japanese protectorate. In the face of slow ne- gotiations with the Chinese government, widespread anti-Japanese sentiment in China, and international condemnation, Japan with- drew the final group of demands, and treaties were signed in May 1915. Siberian Intervention After the fall of the Tsarist regime and the later provisional regime in 1917, the new Bolshevik government signed a separate peace treaty with Germany. After this the Russians fought against themselves in a multi-sided civil war. In July 1918, President Wilson asked the Japanese government to supply 7000 troops as part of an international coalition of 25,000 troops planned to support the American Ex- peditionary Force Siberia. Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake agreed to send 12,000 troops, but under the Japanese command rather than as part of an international coali- tion. The Japanese had several hidden motives for the venture; one was an intense hostility and fear of communism, second a determination to recoup historical losses to Russia and lastly the perceived opportunity to settle the "northern problem" in Japan’s security by either creating a buffer state or through outright territorial acquisition. By November 1918, more than 70,000 Japanese troops under Chief of Staff Yui Mit- sue had occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian Maritime Provinces and east- ern Siberia. In June 1920, the United States and its al- lied coalition partners withdrew from Vla- divostok after the capture and execution of White Army leader Admiral Aleksandr Kol- chak by the Red Army. However, the Japan- ese decided to stay, primarily due to fears of the spread of communism so close to Japan and Japanese controlled Korea and Man- churia. The Japanese army provided military support to the Japanese-backed Provisional Priamur Government based in Vladivostok against the Moscow-backed Far Eastern Republic. The continued Japanese presence con- cerned the United States, which suspected that Japan had territorial designs on Siberia and the Russian Far East. Subjected to in- tense diplomatic pressure by the United States and Great Britain, and facing increas- ing domestic opposition due to the economic and human cost, the administration of Prime Minister Kato Tomosaburo withdrew the Japanese forces in October 1922. Japanese casualties and expenses from the expedition were 5000 dead from combat or illness and over 900 million yen. "Taishō Democracy" The election of Kato Komei as Prime Minister of Japan continued democratic reforms that had been advocated by influential individuals on the left. This culminated in the passage of universal male suffrage in March 1925. This bill gave all male subjects over the age of 25 the right to vote, provided they had lived in their electoral districts for at least one year and were not homeless. The electorate thereby increased from 3.3 million to 12.5 million.[14] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 9 Early Shōwa (1926-1937) - Militarization and im- perialist ambitions Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy Military and social organizations Important institutional links existed between the Party in Government (Kodoha) and Milit- ary and Political Organizations like the Im- perial Young Federation, and the "Political Department" of the Kempeitai; Amongst the himitsu kessha (secret societies), the Kokuryu-kai (Black Dragon Society), and Kokka Shakai Shugi Gakumei (the National Socialist League) also had close ties to the government. The Tonarigumi (residents com- mittee) groups, the Nation Service Society (national government trade union) and Im- perial Farmers Association were all allied as well. See more: List of Japanese institutions (1930 - 1945) Other organizations and groups related with the government in wartime were: Double Leaf Society, Kokuhonsha, Taisei Yok- usankai, Imperial Youth Corps, Tokko, Tokei- tai, Keishicho (to 1945), Shintoist Rites Re- search Council, Treaty Faction, Fleet Faction and Imperial Volunteer Corps Nationalistic factors Sadao Araki was an important figurehead and founder of the Army party and the most important right-wing thinker in his time. His first ideological works date from his leader- ship of the Kodaha (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group), opposed by the Toseiha (Control Group) led by General Kazushige Ugaki. He linked the ancient (bushido code) and contemporary local and European fascist ideals (see Japanese fascism), to form the General Sadao Araki ideological basis of the movement (Shōwa nationalism). From September 1932, the Japanese were becoming more locked into the course that would lead them into the Second World War, with Araki leading the way. Totalitarianism, militarism and expansionism were to become the rule, with fewer voices able to speak against it. In a September 23 news confer- ence, Araki first mentioned the philosophy of "Kodoha" (The Imperial Way Faction). The concept of Kodo linked the Emperor, the people, land and morality as indivisible. This led to the creation of a "new" Shinto and in- creased Emperor worship. The state was being transformed to serve the Army and the Emperor. Symbolic katana swords came back into fashion as the martial embodiment of these beliefs, and the Nambu pistol became its contemporary equivalent, with the implicit message that the Army doc- trine of close combat would prevail. The final objective, as envisioned by Army thinkers and right-wing line followers, was a return to From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 10 Emperor Shōwa, the third emperor of the Empire of Japan the old Shogunate system, but in the form of a contemporary Military Shogunate. In such a government the Emperor would once more be a figurehead (as in the Edo period). Real power would fall to a leader very similar to a Führer or Duce, though with the power less nakedly held. On the other hand, the tradi- tionalist Navy militarists defended the Em- peror and a constitutional monarchy with a significant religious aspect. A third point of view was supported by Prince Chichibu, a brother of Emperor Shōwa, who repeatedly counseled him to im- plement a direct imperial rule, even if that meant suspending the constitution.[15] With the lauching of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association in 1940 by Prime min- ister Fumimaro Konoe, Japan would turn to a form of government that resembled totalitari- anism. However, although this unique style of government was very similar to Fascism there were many significant differences between the two and therefore could be termed Japanese nationalism. Economic factors At same time, the zaibatsu capitalist groups (principally Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, and Yasuda) looked toward great future ex- pansion. Their main concern was a shortage of raw materials. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoye combined social concerns with the needs of capital, and planned for expansion. The main goals of Japan’s expansionism were acquisition and protection of spheres of influ- ence, maintenance of territorial integrity, ac- quisition of raw materials, and access to Asi- an markets. Western nations, notably Great Britain, France, and the United States, had for long exhibited great interest in the com- mercial opportunities in China and other parts of Asia. These opportunities had attrac- ted Western investment because of the avail- ability of raw materials for both domestic production and re-export to Asia. Japan de- sired these opportunities in planning the de- velopment of the Greater East Asian Co- Prosperity Sphere. IJN Yamato, the largest battleship in history (1941) The Great Depression, just as in many oth- er countries, had hindered Japan’s economic growth. The Japanese Empire’s main problem lay in that rapid industrial expansion had turned the country into a major manufactur- ing and industrial power that required raw materials; however, these could only be ob- tained overseas as there was a critical lack of natural resources on the home islands. In the 1920s and 1930s Japan needed to import raw materials such as iron, rubber and oil to maintain strong economic growth. Most of these resources however came from the United States. The Japanese felt that acquiring resource-rich territories would From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 11 establish economic self-sufficiency and inde- pendence, and they also hoped to jump-start the nation’s economy in the midst of the de- pression. As a result Japan set its sights on East Asia, specifically Manchuria with its many resources; Japan needed these re- sources to continue its economic develop- ment and maintain national integrity. Early Shōwa (1937-1945) - Expansionism Pre-War expansionism Manchuria Senjūrō Hayashi was an Imperial Japanese Army commander of the Chosen Army of Japan in Korea during the Mukden Incident and the invasion of Manchuria, and a Japan- ese politician and the 33rd Prime Minister of Japan from February 2, 1937 to June 4, 1937. With little resistance, Japan invaded and conquered Manchuria in 1931. Japan claimed that this invasion was a liberation of the Manchus from the Chinese, although the ma- jority of the population were Han Chinese. Japan then established a puppet regime Japanese troops entering Shenyang, China during Mukden Incident. called Manchukuo, and installed the former Emperor of China, Puyi, as the official head of state. Jehol, a Chinese territory bordering Manchuria, was also taken in 1933. This pup- pet regime had to carry on a protracted paci- fication campaign against the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies in Manchuria. In 1936, Japan created a similar Mongolian puppet state in Inner Mongolia named Mengjiang (Chinese: ??) which was again predominantly Chinese. Second Sino-Japanese War Japan invaded China in 1937, creating what was essentially a three-way war between Japan, Mao Zedong’s communists, and Chi- ang Kai-shek’s nationalists. On 13 December that same year, the Nationalist capital of Nanking fell to Japanese troops. In the event known as the Rape of Nanking, Japanese troops massacred a large number of city’s population. It is estimated that nearly 300,000 people, almost entirely civilians, were killed, though the figure varies depend- ing upon the source. In total, 20 million Chinese, mostly civilians, would be killed dur- ing World War II. A puppet state was also set up in China quickly afterwards, headed by Wang Jingwei. The second Sino-Japanese war would continue into World War II with the Communists and Nationalists in a temporary and uneasy alliance against the Japanese. Clashes with the Soviet Union The Battle of Lake Khasan was an attempted military incursion of the Japanese 19th Divi- sion into the territory claimed by the Soviet Union. This incursion was founded in the From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 12 belief of the Japanese that the Soviet Union misinterpreted the demarcation of the bound- ary based on the Treaty of Peking between Imperial Russia and Manchu China (and sub- sequent supplementary agreements on de- marcation), and furthermore, that the de- marcation markers were tampered with. The following year, Nomonhan Incident (Battle of Khalkhin Gol) occurred on 11 May 1939, when a Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70 to 90 men entered the disputed area in search of grazing for their horses, and en- countered Manchukuoan cavalry who drove them out of the disputed territory. Two days later the Mongolian force returned and the Manchukoans were unable to evict them. The Japanese IJA 23rd Division and other units of the Kwantung Army then became in- volved. Joseph Stalin ordered STAVKA, the Red Army’s high command, to develop a plan for a counterstrike against the Japanese. Ge- orgy Zhukov led a devastating offensive em- ploying encircling tactics making skillful use of their superior artillery, armor and air forces in late August that nearly annihilated the 23rd Division and decimated the IJA 7th Division. On September 15 an armistice was arranged. Nearly two years later, on April 13, 1941, the parties signed a Neutrality Pact, in which they agreed to abide by the existing border. Tripartite Pact Tripartite Pact signing. Seated on the left starting with Saburo Kurusu, Galeazzo Ciano and Adolf Hitler. The Second Sino-Japanese War had seen ten- sions rise between Imperial Japan and the United States; events such as the Panay in- cident and the ’Rape of Nanking’ turned American public opinion against Japan. Founding Ceremony of the Hakko Ichiu Monument in 1940. It had Prince Chichibu’s calligraphy of Hakkō ichiu, carved on its front side. [16] With the occupation of French Indochina in the years of 1940/41 and the continuing war in China, the United States embargoed strategic materials such as scrap metal and oil to Japan, which were vitally needed for their war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource rich, European controlled colonies of South East Asia — specifically British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia). On September 27, 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, their objectives to "estab- lish and maintain a new order of things" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence; with Nazi Germany in Europe, Im- perial Japan in Asia and Fascist Italy in North Africa. The signatories of this alliance be- come known as the Axis Powers. The pact From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 13 also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding the Soviet Union, and for technological and eco- nomic cooperation between the signatories. Pacific War In the Pacific War, many of the islands be- came dominions of the Empire. Attack on Pearl Harbor USS Arizona sinking. After facing an oil embargo by the United States and its own reserve oil supply about to run short, the Japanese government decided to take action and execute a plan developed by the military branch largely lead by Osami Nagano and Isoroku Yamamoto to bomb the United States naval base in Hawaii, thereby bringing the United States to World War II on the side of Allies. On 4 September 1941, the Japanese Cabinet met to consider the war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters, and decided: Our Empire, for the purpose of self- defense and self-preservation, will complete preparations for war ... [and is] ... resolved to go to war with the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands if necessary. Our Empire will concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-a- vis the United States and Great Bri- tain, and thereby endeavor to obtain our objectives ... In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first ten days of October through the diplomatic ne- gotiations mentioned above, we will immediately decide to commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the Netherlands. The Imperial Japanese Navy made its sur- prise attack on Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, on the Sunday morning of December 7, 1941. The Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy and its defending Army Air Forces and Mar- ine air forces sustained significant losses. The primary objective of the attack was to in- capacitate the United States long enough for Japan to establish its long-planned Southeast Asian empire and defensible buffer zones. The U.S. public saw the attack as a treacher- ous act and rallied against the Empire of Japan. The United States entered the European Theatre and Pacific Theater in full force. Four days later, Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany declared war on the United States, bringing the separate conflicts into a cohes- ive conflict. Imperial Japan in 1942, showing the pro- gressive territorial expansions from 1870 Japanese offensives (1941-42) Japanese armored units at Bataan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 14 Victorious Army troops march through Singa- pore (Photo from Imperial War Museum) Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched offensives against Allied forces in South East Asia, with simultaneous attacks on Hong Kong, British Malaya and the Philippines. In Malaya the Japanese overwhelmed a Commonwealth army composed of British, In- dian, Australian and Malay forces. The Japan- ese were quickly able to advance down the Malayan peninsula, forcing the Common- wealth forces to retreat towards Singapore. The British lacked aircover and tanks; the Japanese had total air superiority. The sink- ing of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Re- pulse on December 10, 1941 led to the east coast of Malaya being exposed to Japanese landings and the elimination of British naval power in the area. By the end of January 1942, the last Allied forces crossed the straight of Johore and into Singapore. Hong Kong surrendered to the Japanese on Christ- mas Day. In the Philippines the Japanese pushed the combined Filipino-American force towards the Bataan peninsula and later the island of Corregidor. By January 1942 General Douglas MacArthur and President Manuel L. Quezon were forced to flee in the face of Japanese advance. This marked among one of the worst defeats suffered by the Americans, leaving over 70,000 American and Filipino prisoners of war in the custody of the Japanese. On February 15, 1942 Singapore due to the overwhelming superiority of Japanese forces and encirclement tactics fell to the Japanese, caused about the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. An estimated 80,000 Indian, Australian and Brit- ish troops were prisoners of war, joining 50,000 taken in the Japanese invasion of Malaya (modern day Malaysia), many later used as forced labour on the Burma Railway constructing the infamous Bridge over River Kwai. Due to the United States blockade and embargo of raw material, the Japanese milit- ary industrial complex sought raw materials elsewhere and turned their attention to the vast steel, (latex) rubber, coal and oil riches of South-East Asia. The Japanese swept into relatively lightly guarded Burma (modern-day Myanmar), the well-defended British Malaya states and the heavily fortified Fortress Singapore Singapore for highly strategic con- trol of major trans-Pacific shipping routes. The Japanese then seized the key oil pro- duction zones of Borneo (modern-day Brunei), Central Java (Malang and Cepu, Su- matra, Dutch New Guinea (modern day In- donesian province of Irian Jaya (also conveni- ently abundant in highly valuable copper (for electrical goods such as communications equipment) of the late Dutch East Indies ( de- feating the Dutch forces and welcomed ec- statically as liberating heroes by the op- pressed Indonesian natives pursuant to their indigenous legendsJoyo Boyo. The Japanese then consolidated their lines of supply through capturing key islands of the South Pacific, most notably Guadalcanal, Midway and Saipan. Path to defeat (1942-45) The Mikuma shortly before sinking during Battle of Midway. Japanese military strategists were keenly aware of the unfavorable discrepancy between the industrial potential of the From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 15 Japanese Empire and that of the United States. Because of this they reasoned that Japanese success hinged on their ability to extend the strategic advantage gained at Pearl Harbor with additional rapid strategic victories. The Japanese Command reasoned that only decisive destruction of the United States’ Pacific Fleet and conquest of its re- mote outposts would ensure that the Japan- ese Empire would not be overwhelmed by America’s industrial might. In May 1942, fail- ure to decisively defeat the Allies at the Battle of Coral Sea in spite of Japanese nu- merical superiority equated to a strategic de- feat for Imperial Japan. This setback was fol- lowed in June 1942 by the catastrophic loss of a four carrier task force at the Battle of Midway. Midway was a decisive defeat for the Imperial Japanese Navy, and proved the turning point for the war. Further defeats by the Allies at Guadalcanal in September 1942, and New Guinea in 1943 put the Empire of Japan on the defensive for the remainder of the war. By 1943 and 1944, Allied forces, backed by the industrial might and vast raw material resources of the United States, were advancing steadily towards Japan. The US Sixth Army led by General MacArthur landed on Leyte on 19 October 1944, in the sub- sequent months (Philippines campaign of 1944–1945) of the combined United States and the Philippine Commonwealth troops to- gether with Filipino guerrilla forces liberated much of the Philippines. By 1944 the Allies had seized or bypassed and neutralized many of Japan’s strategic bases through amphibi- ous landings and bombardment. This, coupled with the losses inflicted by Allied submarines on Japanese shipping routes began to strangle Japan’s economy and un- dermine its ability to supply its army. By early 1945 the US Marines had wrested con- trol of the Ogasawa Islands in several hard- fought battles such as the Battle of Iwo Jima, marking the beginning of the fall of the is- lands of Japan. Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki After securing airfields in Saipan and Guam in the summer of 1944, the United States Army Air Forces undertook an intense bomb- ing campaign, using incendiary bombs, burn- ing Japanese cities in an effort to pulverize USS Bunker Hill was hit by two kamikazes on May 11, 1945 during the Battle of Okinawa. Japan’s industry and shatter its morale. While these campaigns led to the deaths of hun- dreds of thousands of civilians they did not succeed in persuading the Japanese military to surrender. In mid August 1945, the United States dropped two nuclear weapons on Japan. These atomic bombings were the first, and so far last, use against another nation. These two bombs killed approximately 100,000 to 200,000 people in a matter of minutes, and many more people died as a result of nuclear radiation in the following weeks, months, and years. the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 16 Defeat and surrender Having ignored (mokusatsu) the Potsdam De- claration, the Empire of Japan surrendered and ended World War II, after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and a declaration of war by the Soviet Union. In a national radio address of 15 August, Emperor Showa announced the surrender to the Japanese people. After World War II War crimes Many political and military Japanese leaders were convicted for war crimes before the Tokyo tribunal and other Allied tribunals in Asia. However, all members of the imperial family implicated in the war, such as emperor Showa and his brothers, cousins and uncles such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi and Prince Asaka, were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by Douglas MacArthur. The Japanese military before and during World War II committed numerous atrocities against civilian and military personnel. Large scale massacres, rapes and looting against ci- vilians were committed most notably the Sook Ching and Nanking massacre, and the use of around 200,000 "comfort women", who were forced to serve as prostitutes for the Japanese military. [17]. The Imperial Japanese Army also engaged in the execution and harsh treatment of Al- lied military personnel and POWs and biolo- gical experiments were conducted by Unit 731 on civilians and prisoners of war; this in- cluded the use of biological and chemical weapons authorized by emperor Shōwa him- self. [18] According to the 2002 International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare, the number of people killed in Far East Asia by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and human experiments was estimated to be around 580,000. [19] Shiro Ishii and all Unit 731 members received im- munity from US General Douglas MacArthur in exchange for germ warfare data based on human experimentation. [20] End of Imperial reign A period known as Occupied Japan followed after the war largely spearheaded by United States General of the Army Douglas McArthur to revise the Japanese constitution and de-militarize Japan. The American occu- pation, with economic and political assist- ance, continued well into the 1950s. After the dissolution of the Empire of Japan, Japan ad- opted a parliamentary-based political system, while the Emperor changed to symbolic status. American General of the Army Douglas MacArthur later commended the new Japan- ese government that he helped established and the new Japanese period when he was about to send the American forces to the Korean War: The Japanese people, since the war, have undergone the greatest reform- ation recorded in modern history. With a commendable will, eagerness to learn, and marked capacity to un- derstand, they have, from the ashes left in war’s wake, erected in Japan an edifice dedicated to the suprem- acy of individual liberty and person- al dignity; and in the ensuing pro- cess there has been created a truly representative government commit- ted to the advance of political moral- ity, freedom of economic enterprise, and social justice. Politically, eco- nomically, and socially Japan is now abreast of many free nations of the earth and will not again fail the uni- versal trust... I sent all four of our occupation divisions to the Korean battlefront without the slightest qualms as to the effect of the result- ing power vacuum upon Japan. The results fully justified my faith. I know of no nation more serene, or- derly, and industrious, nor in which higher hopes can be entertained for future constructive service in the ad- vance of the human race. For historian John W. Dower, however, "In retrospect, apart from the milit- ary officer corps, the purge of al- leged militarists and ultranational- ists that was conducted under the Occupation had relatively small im- pact on the long-term composition of men of influence in the public and private sectors. The purge initially brought new blood into the political From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 17 parties, but this was offset by the re- turn of huge numbers of formerly purged conservative politicians to national as well as local politics in the early 1950s. In the bureaucracy, the purge was negligible from the outset (...) In the economic sector, the purge similarly was only mildly disruptive, affecting less than six- teen hundred individuals spread among some four hundred compan- ies. Everywhere one looks, the cor- ridors of power in postwar Japan are crowded with men whose talents had already been recognized during the war years, and who found the same talents highly prized in the "new" Japan."[21] Repatriation There was a significant level of emigration to the overseas territories of the Japanese Em- pire during the Japanese colonial period, in- cluding Korea,[22] Taiwan, Manchuria, and Karafuto.[23] Unlike emigrants to the Amer- icas, Japanese going to the colonies occupied a higher rather than lower social niche upon their arrival.[24] In 1938 there were 309,000 Japanese in Taiwan.[25] By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese in Korea[26] and more than 2 million in China,[27] most of whom were farmers in Manchukuo (the Japanese had a plan to bring in 5 million Japanese settlers into Manchukuo).[28] In the census of December 1939, the total population of the South Pacific Mandate was 129,104, of which 77,257 were Japanese. By December 1941, Saipan had a population of more than 30,000 people, including 25,000 Japanese.[29] There were over 400,000 people living on Karafuto (southern Sakhalin) when the Soviet offensive began in early August 1945. Most were of Japanese or Korean extraction. When Japan lost the Kuril Islands, 17,000 Japanese were expelled, most from the southern islands.[30] After World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan. The Allied powers repatriated over 6 million Japanese nationals from colonies and battlefields throughout Asia.[31] Only a few remained overseas, often involuntarily, as in the case of orphans in China or prisoners of war captured by the Red Army and forced to work in Siberia.[32] Influential personnel Political In the administration of Japan dominated by the military political movement during World War II, the civil central government was un- der the management of military men and their right-wing civilian allies, along with members of the nobility and Imperial Family. The Emperor was in the center of this power structure as supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Armed Forces and head of state. Fleet Admiral His Imperial Highness Prince Yorihito Higashi-Fushimi Military The military of Imperial Japan was divided in- to two main branches under Imperial General Headquarters responsible for the overall con- duct of operations including prominent milit- ary leaders and commanders: • Prominent generals and leaders: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 18 Prime Minister General Kuniaki Koiso • • : Navy of Japan • Admiral Count Itoh Sukeyuki (1843–1914) • Admiral Viscount Inoue Yoshika (1845–1929) • Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō (1847–1934) Battle of Tsushima • Admiral Prince Arisugawa Takahito (1862–1913) • Admiral Baron Ijuin Gorō (1852–1921) • Admiral Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito (1867–1922) • Admiral Baron Shimamura Hayao (1858–1923) • Admiral Baron Katō Tomosaburō (1861–1923) • Admiral Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu (1876–1946) • Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (1884–1943) Battle of Midway, Attack on Pearl Harbor • Admiral Osami Nagano (1880–1947) • Admiral Mineichi Koga (1885–1944) • Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo: Battle of Midway, Attack on Pearl Harbor • • : Army of Japan Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto • Kan’in Kotohito: Chief of staff of the Army • Hajime Sugiyama: Chief of staff of the Army • Iwane Matsui: Second Sino-Japanese War • Shunroku Hata: Commander of the expeditionary army in China • Yasuji Okamura: Commander of the Sanko sakusen • Tadamichi Kuribayashi: Battle of Iwo Jima • Kuniaki Koiso: Prime Minister of Japan • Hideki Tōjō: Prime Minister of Japan • Mitsuru Ushijima: Battle of Okinawa Timeline • 1926: Emperor Taishō dies (December 25). • 1927: Tanaka Giichi becomes prime minister (April 20). • 1928: Emperor Shōwa is formally installed as emperor (November 10). From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 19 Yōsuke "Frank" Matsuoka, was a Foreign Minister of Imperial Japan and a major ad- vocate of a Japanese alliance with Nazi Ger- many and Fascist Italy. • 1929: Hamaguchi Osachi becomes prime minister (July 2). • 1930: Hamaguchi is wounded in an assassination attempt (November 14). • 1931: Hamaguchi dies and Wakatsuki Reijiro becomes prime minister (April 14). Japan occupies Manchuria after the Mukden Incident (September 18). Inukai Tsuyoshi becomes prime minister (December 13) and increases funding for the military in China. • 1932: After an attack on Japanese monks in Shanghai (January 18), Japanese forces shell the city (January 29). Manchukuo is established with Henry Pu Yi as emperor (February 29). Inukai is assassinated during a coup attempt and Saito Makoto becomes prime minister (May 15). Japan is censured by the League of Nations (December 7). • 1933: Japan leaves the League of Nations (March 27). • 1934: Okada Keisuke becomes prime minister (July 8). Japan withdraws from the Washington Naval Treaty (December 29). • 1936: Coup attempt (February 26 Incident). Hirota Koki becomes prime minister (March 9). Japan signs its first pact with Germany (November 25) and occupies Tsingtao (December 3). Mengchiang established in Inner Mongolia. • 1937: Hayashi Senjuro becomes prime minister (February 2). Prince Konoe Fumimaro becomes prime minister (June 4). Battle of Lugou Bridge (July 7). Japan captures Beijing (July 31). Japanese troops occupy Nanjing (December 13), beginning the Nanjing massacre. • 1938: Battle of Taierzhuang (March 24). Canton falls to Japanese forces (October 21). • 1939: Hiranuma Kiichiro becomes prime minister (January 5). Abe Nobuyuki becomes prime minister (August 30). • 1940: Yonai Mitsumasa becomes prime minister (January 16). Konoe becomes prime minister for a second term (July 22). Hundred Regiments Offensive (August–September). Japan occupies Indochina in the wake of the fall of Paris, and signs the Tripartite Pact (September 27). • 1941: General Tojo Hideki becomes prime minister (October 18). Japanese naval forces attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (December 7), prompting the United States to declare war on Japan (December 8). Japan conquers Hong Kong (December 25). • 1942: Singapore surrenders to Japan (February 15). Japan bombs Australia (February 19). Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (April 18). Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–May 8). U.S. and Filipino forces in the Battle of the Philippines (1942) surrender (May 8). Japan defeated at the Battle of Midway (June 6). Allied victory in the Battle of Milne Bay (September 5). • 1943: Allied victory in Battle of Guadalcanal (February 9). Japan defeated at Battle of Tarawa (November 23). • 1944: Tojo resigns and Koiso Kuniaki becomes prime minister (July 22). From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 20 Posthumous name1 Given name² Childhood name³ Period of Reigns Era name4 Meiji Tennō (????) Mutsuhito (??) Sachi-no-miya (??) 1867–1912 (1890-1912)5 Meiji Taishō Tennō (????) Yoshihito (??) Haru-no-miya (??) 1912–1926 Taishō Shōwa Tennō (????) Hirohito (??) Michi-no-miya (??) 1926–1989 (1926–1947)6 Shōwa 1 Each posthumous name was given after the respective era names as Ming and Qing Dynasties of China. 2 The Japanese imperial family name has no surname or dynastic name. 3 The Meiji Emperor was known only by the appellation Sachi-no-miya from his birth until 11 November 1860, when he was proclaimed heir apparent to Emperor Kōmei and received the personal name Mutsuhito . 4 No multiple era names were given for each reign after Meiji Emperor. 5 Constitutionally. 6 Constitutionally. The reign of the Shōwa Emperor in fact continued until 1989 since he did not abdicate after World War II. • 1945: U.S. bombers begin firebombing of major Japanese cities. Japan defeated at Battle of Iwo Jima (March 26). Admiral Suzuki Kantaro becomes prime minister (April 7). Japan defeated at Battle of Okinawa (June 21). U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). Japan surrenders (August 14): Allied occupation begins. Emperors of the Empire of Japan This period includes the Meiji Era, the Taishō Era, and a part of the Shōwa Era. < Edo period | History of Japan | Post-Occu- pation Japan > See also • Empire of Japan (foreign commerce and shipping) • Agriculture in the Empire of Japan • Demographics of Imperial Japan • Japanese heavy industry (1930–1945) • Japanese mining and energy resources (WWII) • Japanese-German pre-WWII industrial co- operation • Japanese nuclear weapons program References Notes [1] One can date the "restoration" of imperial rule from the edict of January 3, 1868. Jansen, p.334. [2] Hagiwara, p. 34. [3] Jansen, pp. 314–5. [4] Hagiwara, p. 35. [5] Satow, p. 282. [6] Keene, p. 116. See also Jansen, pp. 310–1. [7] Keene, pp. 120–1, and Satow, p. 283. Moreover, Satow (p. 285) speculates that Yoshinobu had agreed to an assembly of daimyos on the hope that such a body would restore him to reinstate him. [8] Satow, p. 286. [9] During a recess, Saigō, who had his troops outside, "remarked that it would take only one short sword to settle the discussion" (Keene, p. 122). Original quotation (Japanese): "??????????????." in Hagiwara, p. 42. The specific word used for "dagger" was "tantō". [10]Keene, p. 124. [11]Keene, p. 340, notes that one might "describe the Oath in Five Articles as a constitution for all ages." [12]The Secret of Japan’s Strength www.calvin.edu [13] - The Constitution of the Empire of Japan (1889) [14]Hane, Mikiso, Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (Oxford: Westview Press, 1992) 234. [15]Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p.284 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Empire of Japan 21 [16]David C. Earhart, Certain Victory, 2008, p.63 [17]BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Abe questions sex slave ’coercion’ [18]Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II (Materials on poison gas Warfare II), Kaisetsu, Hōkan 2, Jūgonen sensô gokuhi shiryōshū, Funi Shuppankan, 1997, p.25-29 [19]Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p.xii, 173. [20]Hal Gold, Unit 731 Testimony, 2003, p. 109. The deal was concluded in 1948. "http://www.commondreams.org/ views05/0510-24.htm An Ethical Blank Cheque: British and US mythology about the second world war ignores our own crimes and legitimises Anglo-American war making- the Guardian, May 10, 2005, by Richard Drayton [21] J. W. Dower, Japan in War & Peace, New press, 1993, p.11 [22] Japanese Periodicals in Colonial Korea [23] Japanese Immigration Statistics, DiscoverNikkei.org [24]Lankov, Andrei (2006-03-23). "The Dawn of Modern Korea (360): Settling Down". The Korea Times. http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/ 200603/kt2006032318091354130.htm. Retrieved on 2006-12-18. [25]Formosa (Taiwan) Under Japanese Rule [26]The Life Instability of Intermarried Japanese Women in Korea [27]Killing of Chinese in Japan concerned, China Daily [28]Prasenjit Duara: The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective [29]A Go: Another Battle for Sapian [30]The Kurile Islands Dispute [31]When Empire Comes Home : Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan by Lori Watt, Harvard University Press [32] "Russia Acknowledges Sending Japanese Prisoners of War to North Korea". Mosnews.com. 2005-04-01. http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/04/ 01/japanesedied.shtml. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. Books and Journals • Jansen, Marius B. (2002). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00991-6. • Jansen, Marius B.; John Whitney Hall, Madoka Kanai, Denis Twitchett (1989). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521223563. • Porter, Robert P. (2001). Japan: The Rise of a Modern Power. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1402196903. • Keene, Donald (2005). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912. New York: Columbia. ISBN 0-231-12340-X. • Satow, Ernest. A Diplomat in Japan. ISBN 4-925080-28-8. • Lewis, John David (2007). ’Gifts from Heaven’: The Meaning of the American Victory over Japan, 1945. 2. Glen Allen, VA: Glen Allen Press. External links • Axis History Factbook — Japan • Imperial Japan • Death of the Father: Hirohito & Imperial Japan Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" Categories: Former countries in Japanese history, States and territories established in 1868, 1945 disestablishments, Empire of Japan This page was last modified on 16 May 2009, at 14:49 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) 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