Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder

Starting in late 2006, commercial migratory beekeepers along the East Coast of the United States began reporting sharp declines in their honey bee colonies. Because of the severity and unusual circumstances of these colony declines, scientists named this phenomenon colony collapse disorder (CCD). Reports indicate that beekeepers in most states have been affected. Overall, the number of managed honey bee colonies dropped an estimated 35.8% and 31.8% in the winters of 2007/2008 and 2006/2007, respectively. Preliminary loss estimates for the 2008/2009 winter are reported at 28.6%. To date, the precise reasons for colony losses are not yet known.
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CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress        
 
 
Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder 
Renée Johnson 
Specialist in Agricultural Policy 
January 7, 2010 
Congressional Research Service
7-5700 
www.crs.gov 
RL33938 
Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder 
 
Congressional Research Service 
Summary 
Starting in late 2006, commercial migratory beekeepers along the East Coast of the United States 
began reporting sharp declines in their honey bee colonies. Because of the severity and unusual 
circumstances of these colony declines, scientists named this phenomenon colony collapse 
disorder (CCD). Reports indicate that beekeepers in most states have been affected. Overall, the 
number of managed honey bee colonies dropped an estimated 35.8% and 31.8% in the winters 
of 2007/2008 and 2006/2007, respectively. Preliminary loss estimates for the 2008/2009 
winter are reported at 28.6%. To date, the precise reasons for colony losses are not yet known. 
Honey bees are the most economically valuable pollinators of agricultural crops worldwide. 
Scientists at universities and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) frequently assert that 
bee pollination is involved in about one-third of the U.S. diet, and contributes to the production of 
a wide range of fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, forage crops, some field crops, and other specialty 
crops. The monetary value of honey bees as commercial pollinators in the United States is 
estimated at about $15-$20 billion annually. 
Honey bee colony losses are not uncommon. However, losses in recent years differ from past 
situations in that colony losses are occurring mostly because bees are failing to return to the hive 
(which is largely uncharacteristic of bee behavior); bee colony losses have been rapid; colony 
losses are occurring in large numbers; and the reason(s) for these losses remains largely unknown.  
Based on the available research over the past few years on the numerous possible causes of CCD, 
USDA concluded in its 2007-2008 progress report (released in June 2009) that “it now seems 
clear that no single factor alone is responsible for the malady.” This has led researchers to further 
examine the hypothesis that CCD may be “a syndrome caused by many different factors, working 
in combination or synergistically.” Currently, USDA states, researchers are focusing on three 
major possibilities:  
• pesticides that may be having unexpected negative effects on honey bees;  
• a new parasite or pathogen that may be attacking honey bees, such as the parasite 
Nosema ceranae or viruses; and  
• a combination of existing stresses that may compromise the immune system of 
bees and disrupt their social system, making colonies more susceptible to disease 
and collapse. Stresses could include high levels of infection by the Varroa mite; 
poor nutrition due to apiary overcrowding, pollination of crops with low 
nutritional value, or pollen or nectar scarcity; exposure to limited or 
contaminated water supplies; and migratory stress.  
Funding for honey bee and CCD research at USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS) has 
increased sharply, following both the enactment of the 2008 farm bill (P.L. 110-246) and the 
FY2009 and FY2010 appropriations process (P.L. 111-8 and P.L. 111-80, respectively). These 
legislative actions contained additional provisions that would, among other things, provide 
additional funding for research and conservation programs addressing honey bees and pollinators. 
Total ARS funding for honey bee and CCD research averaged more than $7.7 million each in 
FY2007 and FY2008, increasing to $8.3 million in FY2009 and $9.8 million for FY2010. 
 
Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder 
 
Congressional Research Service 
Contents 
Importance of Honey Bee Pollination..........................................................................................1 
Extent and Symptoms of Colony Collapse Disorder ....................................................................4 
Past Honey Bee Population Losses ........................................................................................5 
Current Colony Losses from Available Surveys .....................................................................6 
How CCD Differs from Past Bee Colony Losses ...................................................................7 
Symptoms of Colony Collapse Disorder ................................................................................8 
Possible Causes of Colony Collapse Disorder........................................................................8 
Parasites, Mites, and Disease...........................................................................................9 
Pesticides and Chemicals .............................................................................................. 11 
Other Factors ................................................................................................................ 12 
Other Related Events .......................................................................................................... 12 
Issues for Congress ................................................................................................................... 13 
Committee Actions and Hearings ........................................................................................ 13 
2008 Farm Bill.................................................................................................................... 14 
Conservation Provisions................................................................................................ 14 
Research Provisions ...................................................................................................... 14 
Insurance and Disaster Provisions ................................................................................. 15 
Other Provisions ........................................................................................................... 15 
USDA Actions and Funding ................................................................................................ 15 
USDA’s Action Plan...................................................................................................... 15 
USDA’s 2007-2008 Progress Report.............................................................................. 16 
Available USDA Research Funding............................................................................... 16 
 
Figures 
Figure 1. Colony Collapse Disorder, Affected States....................................................................4 
 
Tables 
Table 1. Estimated Value of the Honey Bee to U.S. Crop Production, 2000 Estimates ..................2 
 
Contacts 
Author Contact Information ......................................................................................................17 
 
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tarting in 2006, commercial migratory beekeepers along the East Coast of the United States 
began reporting sharp declines in their honey bee colonies. Because of the severity and 
unusual circumstances of these colony declines, scientists named this phenomenon colony 
collapse disorder (CCD). Current reports indicate that beekeepers in most states have been 
affected. Overall, the number of managed honey bee colonies dropped an estimated 35.8% and 
31.8% in the winters of 2007/2008 and 2006/2007, respectively.1 Preliminary loss estimates 
for the 2008/2009 winter are reported at 28.6%. To date, the precise reasons for colony losses 
are not yet known. 
This report provides an overview of the importance of honey bee pollination to U.S. agricultural 
production, especially specialty crops. It describes the extent and symptoms of CCD and how it 
differs from previous honey bee colony losses, describing some of the reasons why scientists 
believe honey bee colonies are being affected by CCD. Finally, the report discusses policy 
options and actions that Congress has taken to address this issue. 
Importance of Honey Bee Pollination 
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are the most economically valuable pollinators of agricultural crops 
worldwide and are the only bee species kept commercially in the United States.2 In the United 
States, bee pollination of agricultural crops is said to account for about one-third of the U.S. diet, 
and to contribute to the production of a wide range of high-value fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, 
forage crops, some field crops, and other specialty crops.3 
The monetary value of honey bees as commercial pollinators in the United States is estimated at 
about $15 billion annually4 (Table 1). Some studies report the estimated value of honey bee 
pollination at as much as $20 billion annually. This estimated value is measured according to the 
additional value of production attributable to honey bees, in terms of the value of the increased 
yield and quality achieved from honey bee pollination, including the indirect benefits of bee 
pollination required for seed production of some crops. About one-third of the estimated value of 
commercial honey bee pollination is in alfalfa production, mostly for alfalfa hay. Another nearly 
10% of the value of honey bee pollination is for apples, followed by 6%-7% of the value each for 
almonds, citrus, cotton, and soybeans. Overall, pollinator-dependent crops are reported to make 
up an estimated 23% of total U.S. agricultural production in 2006, up from an estimated 14% in 
the 1960s.5  
                                                             
1 D. vanEngelsdorp1, J. Hayes, and J. Pettis, “Preliminary Results: A Survey of Honey Bee Colonies Losses in the U.S. 
Between September 2008 and April 2009,” May 19, 2009, http://www.beealert.info/.  
2 Other known animal pollinators are stingless bees, bumble bees, other bees, wasps, hover flies, other flies, beetles, 
thrips, ants, butterflies, moths, bats, hummingbirds, and other birds. 
3 M. R. Berenbaum, University of Illinois, Statement before the Subcommittee on Horticulture and Organic 
Agriculture, U.S. House of Representatives, March 29, 2007, http://agriculture.house.gov/testimony/110/h70329/
Berenbaum.pdf; J. Pettis, USDA’s ARS, interview with University of Pennsylvania staff, January 23, 2007. Staple 
crops (wheat, corn, and rice) do not rely on insect pollination and are mostly wind pollinated. 
4 R. A. Morse and N. W. Calderone, The Value of Honey Bees as Pollinators of U.S. Crops in 2000, March 2000, 
Cornell University, http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf.  Other studies show a range of estimated 
values from $5.7 billion to $19.0 billion (see National Research Council, Status of Pollinators in North America, 2006). 
5 Pollinator Partnership, “Helping the earth by supporting pollinators,” 2009 publication. 
S 
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Table 1. Estimated Value of the Honey Bee to U.S. Crop Production, 2000 Estimates 
Crop Category 
(ranked by share of  
honey bee 
pollinator value) 
Dependence 
on Insect 
Pollination 
Proportion of 
Pollinators  
That Are  
Honey Bees 
Value 
Attributed to 
Honey Beesa 
($ millions) 
 
Major 
Producing 
Statesb 
Alfalfa, hay & seed 
100% 
60% 
4,654.2 
CA, SD, ID, WI 
Apples 
100% 
90% 
1,352.3 
WA, NY, MI, PA 
Almonds 
100% 
100% 
959.2 
CA 
Citrus 
20%-80% 
10%-90% 
834.1 
CA, FL, AZ, TX 
Cotton (lint & seed) 
20% 
80% 
857.7 
TX, AR, GA, MS 
Soybeans 
10% 
50% 
824.5 
IA, IL, MN, IN 
Onions 
100% 
90% 
661.7 
TX, GA, CA, AZ 
Broccoli 
100% 
90% 
435.4 
CA 
Carrots 
100% 
90% 
420.7 
CA, TX 
Sunflower 
100% 
90% 
409.9 
ND, SD 
Cantaloupe/honeydew 
80% 
90% 
350.9 
CA, WI, MN, WA 
Other fruits & nutsc 
10%-90% 
10%-90% 
1,633.4 
— 
Other vegetables/melonsd 
70%-100% 
10%-90% 
1,099.2 
— 
Other field cropse 
10%-100% 
20%-90% 
70.4 
— 
Total 
— 
— 
14,564 
— 
Source: Compiled by CRS using values reported in R. A. Morse, and N.W. Calderone, The Value of Honey Bees 
as Pollinators of U.S. Crops in 2000, March 2000, Cornell University, http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/
pollination.pdf. 
a. Attributed value is the additional value of production attributable to honey bees, in terms increased yield 
and quality achieved from honey bee pollination, including the indirect benefits of bee pollination required 
for seed production of some crops. Calculated from total average production value (1996-1998). 
b. For most commodities, major producing states reflect reported 2006 production (http://www.nass.usda.gov/
QuickStats/). Melon production is based on reported 2002 harvested acreage. 
c. Apricots, avocados, blueberries, brambleberries, cherries, cranberries, grapes, kiwi fruit, macadamia nuts, 
olives, peaches, pears, nectarines, plums, and strawberries. 
d. Asparagus, cauliflower, celery, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash, watermelon, and vegetable seeds. 
e. Peanuts, canola (rapeseed), and sugarbeets. 
A number of agricultural crops are almost totally (90%-100%) dependent on honey bee 
pollination, including almonds, apples, avocados, blueberries, cranberries, cherries, kiwi fruit, 
macadamia nuts, asparagus, broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, celery, cucumbers, onions, legume 
seeds, pumpkins, squash, and sunflowers. Other specialty crops also rely on honey bee 
pollination, but to a lesser degree. These crops include apricot, citrus (oranges, lemons, limes, 
grapefruit, tangerines, etc.), peaches, pears, nectarines, plums, grapes, brambleberries, 
strawberries, olives, melon (cantaloupe, watermelon, and honeydew), peanuts, cotton, soybeans, 
and sugarbeets.6 
                                                             
6 Ibid. Another study found that pollinators are essential for the production of some U.S.-grown crops, particularly 
(continued...) 
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In the United States, most pollination services are provided by commercial migratory beekeepers 
who travel from state to state and provide pollination services to crop producers. These operations 
are able to supply a large number of bee colonies during the critical phase of a crop’s bloom 
cycle, when honey bees pollinate a crop as they fly from flower to flower collecting nectar and 
pollen, which they carry back to the nest.7 Data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s 
(USDA) 2007 Census indicate that there were about 28,000 operations with 2.9 million bee 
colonies in the United States.8 The majority of these, more than 2 million bee colonies, are 
reported to belong to commercial migratory beekeepers. The Dakotas accounted for a combined 
27% of all bee colonies. Another one-fifth of all colonies are in California (about 14%) and 
Florida (7%).9 Montana, Minnesota, Idaho, and Texas accounted for 4%-5% each of all colonies 
nationwide. Other states with a large number of bee colonies were Michigan, Oregon, Georgia, 
Nebraska, New York, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming, with about 2% each. Although 
these operations also produce honey for commercial sale, it is their value as crop pollinators that 
provides the greatest economic impact in the production of food and feed crops. 
It is estimated that, each year, more than 2 million bee colonies are rented for U.S. crop 
pollination. Available limited information indicates that the greatest number of honey bee colony 
rentals are for apple and almond production, followed by clover seed, cherries, and pears.10 About 
one-half of the nation’s honey bee colonies (an estimated 1.3 million colonies) are used to 
pollinate California’s current 550,000 acres of almond trees, and this need is projected to grow to 
1.5 million colonies by 2010.11 Both locally and globally, there are concerns that growth in the 
availability of honey bee stocks is not keeping pace with growing agricultural demands for 
pollination services.12  
Rental fees collected by commercial beekeepers for pollination services may vary by crop type, 
and often tend to be lower for some seed crops and higher for berry and tree crops. In recent 
years, pollination fees paid by crop producers have increased. For example, fees paid by 
California’s almond industry have risen from a reported $35 per colony in the late 1990s to about 
$75 per colony in 2005.13 More recent estimates of fees for pollinating almond trees are even 
higher, at $150 per colony or more. Among the reasons for higher pollination fees are expanding 
almond acreage and relatively high honey prices, but also fewer available honey bees for 
pollination due, in part, to colony declines and bee mortalities.  
                                                             
(...continued) 
macadamia nuts, squash, and pumpkins. A.M. Klein, et. al, “Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world 
crops,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, Vol. 274, No. 1608, February 7, 2007. 
7 Some “spillover” pollination occurs, including pollination from colonies owned by part-time beekeepers and 
hobbyists, or pollination of adjacent fields from commercial hives. 
8 Based on honey production statistics. USDA, 2007 Census of Agriculture, Table 31, http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/
Publications/2007/Full_Report/Volume_1,_Chapter_1_US/st99_1_029_031.pdf.  
9 USDA, Honey, February 2009, http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/current/Hone/Hone-02-27-2009.pdf. 
10 M. Burgett, 1999 Pacific Northwest Honey Bee Pollination Survey, Oregon State University. 
11 USDA, CCD Steering Committee, “Colony Collapse Disorder Action Plan,” June 20, 2007, at 
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/br/ccd/ccd_actionplan.pdf; and USDA, “Questions and Answers: Colony Collapse 
Disorder,” http://www.ars.usda.gov/News/docs.htm?docid=15572. 
12 See, for example, M. A. Aizen and L. D. Harder, “The Global Stock of Domesticated Honey Bees is Growing Slower 
than Agricultural Demand for Pollination,” Current Biology, May 2009.  
13 National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Status of Pollinators in North America, 2006. 
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Extent and Symptoms of Colony Collapse Disorder 
Starting in the last three months of 2006, a seemingly new phenomenon began to occur based on 
reports of an “alarming” number of bee colony losses and die-off along the East Coast. By the 
end of 2006, beekeepers on the West Coast also began to report “unprecedented” losses.14 
Available estimates indicate that beekeepers in 35 states have been affected (Figure 1). Because 
of the severity and lack of precedent, scientists coined a new term, Colony Collapse Disorder 
(CCD), for this phenomenon. 
Figure 1. Colony Collapse Disorder, Affected States 
 
Source: Bee Alert Inc., “Map of U.S. States Reporting Colony Collapse Disorder,” http://beealert.blackfoot.net/
~beealert/USshaded.pdf. Shaded areas show reported affected states. This is the most recent update (as of 
December 2009). 
Much of the current research on CCD is being conducted by scientists at USDA’s Agriculture 
Research Service (Beltsville bee laboratory), Pennsylvania State University, the University of 
Montana, and the Pennsylvania and Florida Departments of Agriculture, among others. Many of 
these researchers also participate in the CCD Working Group, which includes Bee Alert Inc., the 
Florida and Pennsylvania Departments of Agriculture, Pennsylvania State University, and USDA. 
Up-to-date information is regularly posted to the website of the Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research 
and Extension Consortium (MAAREC), which represents beekeeping associations in New Jersey, 
Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. 
                                                             
14 D. vanEngelsdorp et al., “Fall Dwindle Disease: Investigations into the Causes of Sudden and Alarming Colony 
Losses Experienced by Beekeepers in the Fall of 2006,” December 15, 2006. 
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Past Honey Bee Population Losses 
Honey bee colony losses are not uncommon. A recent report by the National Research Council 
(NRC) documents the extensive literature on honey bee population losses due to bee pests, 
parasites, pathogens, and disease. Most notable are declines due to two parasitic mites, the so-
called vampire mite (Varroa destructor) and the tracheal mite (Acarapis woodi), and also colony 
declines due to the pathogen Paenibacillus larvae.15 Other reasons for bee colony declines 
reported by the NRC include interspecific competition between native and introduced bees, 
pathogen spillover effects, habitat loss, invasive plant species that reduce nectar- and pollen-
producing vegetation, bee genetics, and pesticides, among other factors. 
Mite infestations are a relatively new occurrence. The 1980s saw two periods of large die-offs due 
to Varroa and tracheal mites: The first Varroa mite infestation was reported in 1987; tracheal 
mites were first detected in 1984.16 Varroa mites are also said to have eliminated most feral bee 
colonies in the mid-1990s.17 Varroa parasitism affects both worker bees and male larvae and can 
affect the ability of the queen to reproduce. It is associated with viral pathogens and if left 
untreated can cause colony mortalities usually within six months to two years after the initial 
infestation. Less is known about the effects of the tracheal mite. The pathogen Paenibacillus 
larvae is the most serious honey bee pathogen and causes American foulbrood (AFB), which is a 
disease of larval honey bees. AFB resulted in large colony losses in the 1940s, but its incidence 
has been reduced by the use of antibiotics and increased apiary inspection programs. 
Nevertheless, mite and pathogen infestations have likely raised beekeeper operating costs to pay 
for miticides and/or antibiotics, labor and expenses for treatment, improved management and 
inspection, and colony replacement of dead bees. 
Symptoms similar to those observed for CCD have been described in the past, and heavy losses 
have been documented. It is still not clear whether the current colony losses are being caused by 
the same factors or if new contributing factors are involved.18 MAAREC also reports that large 
beekeeper operations may have experienced higher than normal losses compared with the past 
few years, and heavy overwintering losses were reported in 2003-2004 for many northern 
beekeepers. 
Overall, USDA reports that bee colony losses have averaged 17%-20% per year since the 1990s, 
attributable to a variety of factors, such as mites, diseases, and management stress. By 
comparison, bee colony losses between the winters of 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 averaged more 
than 30% during the year.19 
                                                             
15 National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Status of Pollinators in North America, 2006. 
16 National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Status of Pollinators in North America, 2006; Interview 
with Maryann Frazier, Senior Extension Agent, Pennsylvania State University, January 28, 2007. 
17 R. A. Morse and N. W. Calderone, The Value of Honey Bees as Pollinators of U.S. Crops in 2000, March 2000, 
Cornell University, http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf. 
18 Similar conditions have been termed autumn collapse, May disease, spring dwindle, disappearing disease, and fall 
dwindle disease. 
19 Pollinator Partnership, “Helping the earth by supporting pollinators,” 2009 publication. Estimates attributed to 
Jeffrey S. Pettis at USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS). 
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Current Colony Losses from Available Surveys 
The first report of CCD was in mid-November 2006 by a Pennsylvania beekeeper overwintering 
in Florida. By February 2007, large commercial migratory beekeepers in several states had 
reported heavy losses associated with CCD. Their reports of losses varied widely, ranging from 
30% to 90% of their bee colonies; in some cases beekeepers feared loss of nearly all of their 
colonies.20 Surviving colonies were reportedly weakened and might no longer be viable to 
pollinate or produce honey. Losses were reported in migratory operations wintering in California, 
Florida, Oklahoma and Texas. In late February, some larger non-migratory beekeepers in the mid-
Atlantic and Pacific Northeast regions also reported significant losses of more than 50%.21 Bee 
colony losses also were reported in five Canadian provinces, several European countries, and 
countries in South and Central America and Asia. 
In March 2007, the Apiary Inspectors of America (AIA) conducted a survey of its members in 15 
states.22 The survey tracked changes from September 2006 and March 2007. Overall, responding 
beekeepers suffered an average loss of 38% of their colonies during the winter of 2006-2007. If 
these losses are representative of the nation, between 651,000 and 875,000 of the nation’s 
estimated 2.4 million colonies were lost over that winter.23 While a majority of losses were 
attributable to known causes, approximately 25% of beekeepers are believed to have suffered 
from CCD.24 The survey indicated that, among the beekeepers surveyed, more than 50% reported 
“abnormally heavy losses” with total colony losses of 55%. This compared to those reporting 
“normal losses” with total colony losses of 16%. Of the responding beekeepers, about one-fourth 
reported conditions associated with CCD.25 Beekeeping operations experiencing CCD-like 
conditions reported losses of 45% of their managed bee colonies. Among the leading causes 
reported by most affected commercial beekeeping operations were pest diseases. 
A 2007 survey conducted by Bee Alert Technology, Inc., showed that, among the beekeepers 
surveyed, more than 40% reported “severe losses,” with losses of nearly 60% of their colonies.26 
Another 48% reported average or lower losses. Smaller operations with less than 100 colonies are 
more likely to have suffered more severe losses than normal. Respondents were also asked to 
indicate whether the general cause for colony losses was due to overwinter losses, mites, pesticide 
                                                             
20 Interview with Maryann Frazier, Senior Extension Agent, Pennsylvania State University, January 28, 2007; 
vanEngelsdorp et al., “Fall Dwindle Disease: Investigations into the Causes of Sudden and Alarming Colony Losses 
Experienced by Beekeepers in the Fall of 2006,” December 15, 2006. 
21 MAAREC, “Colony Collapse Disorder,” http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/FAQ/FAQCCD.pdf. 
22 D. vanEngelsdorp, R. Underwood, D. Caron, and J. Hayes Jr., “An Estimate of Managed Colony Losses in the 
Winter of 2006-2007: A Report Commissioned by the Apiary Inspectors of America,” American Bee Journal, July 
2007, http://www.ento.psu.edu/MAAREC/CCDPpt/CCDJuly07ABJArticle-1.pdf. Based on a survey of beekeepers that 
included 384 respondents representing 153,000 managed bee colonies located in AR, FL, GA, MD, MI, MS, MT, NM, 
ND, OH, PA, SD, TN, and WI. 
23 Estimated at the 95% confidence interval. 
24 These statistics may have been misrepresented in the popular press, which often state that 25% of the nation’s 2.4 
million colonies have been lost (citing the AIA survey as its source). 
25 Other reports indicate that the 2007 AIA survey found 30% colony losses. 
26 C. Henderson, J. Bromenshenk, L. Tarver, and D. Plummer, “National Honey Bee Loss Survey,” June 2007, 
http://www.beealert.info/. Survey based on 625 responses received from operations in the U.S. and Canada, covering 
43 states and five provinces. The majority (about two-thirds) of beekeepers surveyed were at smaller operations with 
less than 100 colonies, with another one-third of surveyed operations roughly split among operations with 100-1,000 
colonies, 1,000-10,000 colonies, and more than 10,000 colonies. 
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exposure, or colony disappearance (or CCD). Among all respondents, colony losses due to 
disappearance (43%) and overwintering (37%) accounted for the greatest share of total losses, 
with mites and disease accounting for another 15%. Pesticides were indicated to account for a 
relatively small share (4%) of surveyed colony failures, regardless of operation size. This 
compares to other previous estimates of winter losses from various different surveys showing 
overall colony losses of about 30% during the period 2000-2006, mostly associated with losses 
due to Varroa mites.27 
Survey information reported by USDA and AIA indicate that the number of managed honey bee 
colonies dropped an estimated 35.8% in the 2007/2008 winter and 31.8% in the 2006/2007 
winter.28 Preliminary loss estimates for the 2008/2009 winter are reported at 28.6%. This 
survey data also indicates that 15% of all the colonies lost during the 2008/2009 winter died 
with symptoms of CCD, compared to a 60% colony loss with CCD-like symptoms in the 
winter of 2007/2008. Although more recent estimates reflect a possible decrease in the rate of 
managed colony losses, USDA asserts that this rate of loss remains unsustainable.29 Other 
information from USDA indicates that colony losses range widely depending on area, from 7% to 
80% loss at some surveyed operations.30  
How CCD Differs from Past Bee Colony Losses 
Current bee colony losses seem to differ from past losses in that colony losses are occurring 
mostly because bees are failing to return to the hive (which is largely uncharacteristic of bee 
behavior); bee colony losses have been rapid; colony losses are occurring in large numbers; and 
the reason why these losses are occurring remains still largely unknown. 
The phenomenon was first called “Fall-Dwindle Disease,” but was renamed because of the 
unusual characteristics of the colony declines. Moreover, the condition is not only seasonal but 
manifests itself throughout the year. The term “dwindle” implies a gradual loss, whereas CCD 
onset is sudden. Also, the term “disappearance” is used to describe other types of conditions, 
which differ from the symptoms currently being associated with CCD. Finally, the term “disease” 
is usually associated with a biological agent, but none has yet been identified.31 
                                                             
27 E. Burdick and D. M. Caron, MAAREC Beekeeper Survey, University of Delaware, http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/pdfs/
MAARECSurveyPub.pdf. 
28 D. vanEngelsdorp, J. Hayes, and J. Pettis, “Preliminary Results: A Survey of Honey Bee Colonies Losses in the U.S. 
Between September 2008 and April 2009,” May 2009, http://www.beealert.info/. Survey based on about 20% of all 
U.S. colonies. 
29 Ibid. 
30 Jeff Pettis, “Colony Collapse Disorder Affecting Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) colonies,” October 2008 presentation, 
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ppdc/2008/oct2008/session7-ccd.pdf. Survey based on 22 operations, managing 10% of 
U.S. colonies, and AIA surveys. 
31 D. vanEngelsdorp, D. Cox Foster, M. Frazier, N. Ostiguy, and J. Hayes, “Fall Dwindle Disease: Investigations into 
the Causes of Sudden and Alarming Colony Losses Experienced by Beekeepers in the Fall of 2006,” December 2006. 
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Symptoms of Colony Collapse Disorder 
The symptoms of CCD, based on the available research, include the following: 32 
• 
rapid loss of adult worker bees, 
• 
few or no dead bees found in the hive, 
• presence of immature bees (brood), 
• 
small cluster of bees with live queen present, and 
• pollen and honey stores in hive. 
Among the key symptoms of CCD in collapsed colonies is that the adult population is suddenly 
gone without any accumulation of dead bees. The bees are not returning to the hive but are 
leaving behind their brood (young bees), their queen, and maybe a small cluster of adults. What is 
uncharacteristic about this situation is that the honey bee is a very social insect and colony-
oriented, with a complex and organized nesting colony. Failing to return to the hive is considered 
highly unusual. An absence of a large number of dead bees makes an analysis of the causes of 
CCD difficult. Also there is little evidence that the hive may have been attacked. In actively 
collapsing colonies, an insufficient number of adult bees remain to care for the brood. The 
remaining workforce seems to be made up of young adult bees. The queen is present, appears 
healthy and is usually still laying eggs, but the remaining cluster is reluctant to consume feed 
provided by the beekeeper, and foraging is greatly reduced. 
Possible Causes of Colony Collapse Disorder 
The initial scientific search of the possible factors involved in CCD focused on four areas:33 
• pathogens, 
• parasites, 
• environmental stresses, and 
• bee management stresses such as poor nutrition. 
Early on, researchers had tentatively removed some practices and conditions from the list of 
possible causes of CCD. These included feeding practices, chemicals used by beekeepers (such as 
antibiotics and miticides), use of bees (primarily for honey production versus pollination), and 
queen source.34 However, the scientists researching this phenomenon note that these could 
contribute to the risk of bee colonies developing CCD. Some scientists also wonder whether a 
combination of the stressors, including mites, disease, and nutritional stress, are interacting to 
                                                             
32 D. vanEngelsdorp et al., “Fall Dwindle Disease: Investigations into the Causes of Sudden and Alarming Colony 
Losses Experienced by Beekeepers in the Fall of 2006,” December 15, 2006; published interview with Maryann 
Frazier, Penn State University, January 28, 2007, at http://podcasts.psu.edu/taxonomy/term/62; and Jeff Pettis, “Colony 
Collapse Disorder Affecting Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) colonies,” October 2008 presentation. 
33 USDA, “Questions and Answers: Colony Collapse Disorder,” http://www.ars.usda.gov/News/docs.htm?docid=
15572. 
34 Most queens are purchased from suppliers in Florida, California, Texas, Georgia, and Hawaii, or from suppliers in 
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. 
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weaken bee colonies and are allowing stress-related pathogens, such as fungi, thus causing a final 
collapse.35 Others note the possible role of miticide resistance in bees. 
Others have speculated that because most of the reported colony losses are among large 
commercial migratory operations, which may move bees two to five times during a growing 
season, the current disorder may be the result of accumulated stress, and factors such as 
confinement and temperature fluctuations. These stresses may increase the colony’s susceptibility 
to disease and may also increase its potential exposure to other diseases and parasites.36 A 10% 
die-off is not uncommon following transportation, with losses of 30% possible. 
As outlined in USDA’s 2007-2008 progress report, the available research over the past few years 
on the numerous possible causes for CCD has led USDA and university researchers to conclude 
that “no single factor alone is responsible” for CCD.37 This has led researchers to further examine 
the hypothesis that CCD may be “a syndrome caused by many different factors, working in 
combination or synergistically,” including “an interaction between pathogens and other stress 
factors.” 38 Currently, USDA states, researchers are focusing on three major possibilities:39  
1. pesticides that may be having unexpected negative effects on honey bees;  
2. a new parasite or pathogen that may be attacking honey bees, such as the parasite 
Nosema ceranae or viruses; and  
3. a combination of existing stresses that may compromise the immune system of 
bees and disrupt their social system, making colonies more susceptible to disease 
and collapse. Stresses could include high levels of infection by the Varroa mite; 
poor nutrition due to apiary overcrowding, pollination of crops with low 
nutritional value, or pollen or nectar scarcity; exposure to limited or 
contaminated water supplies; and migratory stress.  
Parasites, Mites, and Disease 
Initially, the potential causes of CCD, as reported by the scientists researching this phenomenon, 
were thought to include but not be limited to parasites, mites, and disease loads in the bees and 
brood; emergence of new or newly more virulent pathogens, such as fungal diseases; poor 
nutrition among adult bees; lack of genetic diversity and lineage of bees; level of stress in adult 
bees, as indicated by stress-induced proteins (e.g., transportation and confinement of bees, 
overcrowding, or other environmental or biological stressors); chemical residue/contamination in 
                                                             
35 D. Cox Foster, Pennsylvania State University, Statement before the Subcommittee on Horticulture and Organic 
Agriculture, U.S. House of Representative, March 29, 2007, http://agriculture.house.gov/testimony/110/h70329/
CoxFoster.pdf. 
36 D. vanEngelsdorp et al., “Fall Dwindle Disease: Investigations into the Causes of Sudden and Alarming Colony 
Losses Experienced by Beekeepers in the Fall of 2006,” December 15, 2006; and C. Rexrod, USDA’s ARS, Statement 
before the Subcommittee on Horticulture and Organic Agriculture, U.S. House of Representative, March 29, 2007, 
http://agriculture.house.gov/testimony/110/h70329/Rexroad.pdf. 
37 USDA, Colony Collapse Disorder Progress Report, CCD Steering Committee, June 2009, http://www.ars.usda.gov/
is/br/ccd/ccd_progressreport.pdf. Also see D. vanEngelsdorp et al., “Colony Collapse Disorder: A Descriptive Study,” 
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 4, Issue 8, August 2009. 
38 Ibid. 
39 USDA, “Questions and Answers: Colony Collapse Disorder,” http://www.ars.usda.gov/News/docs.htm?docid=
15572. 
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the wax, food stores, and/or bees, including acute or cumulative exposure to new types of 
agricultural pesticides as well as exposure to chemicals that beekeepers use to control mites; and 
a combination of these and/or other factors.40 
In July 2007, USDA reported that theories about the causes of CCD were focused on increased 
losses due to the Varroa mite; new or emerging diseases, especially mortality by a new species of 
a single-celled parasite Nosema ceranae; pesticide exposure; and potential immune-suppressing 
stress on bees due to one or a combination of these factors.41 In September 2007, a research team 
that included USDA published the results of a genetic screening of CCD-affected honey bee 
colonies and non-CCD-affected hives.42 The only pathogen found in nearly all samples (96.1%) 
from CCD-affected colonies, but not in non-CCD colonies, was the Israeli acute paralysis virus 
(IAPV), a dicistrovirus that can be transmitted by the Varroa mite.43 USDA considers this 
research to have identified IAPV as a marker of CCD, since it is found in affected bees, but not to 
have identified IAPV as the cause of CCD; however, this research indicates there is a strong 
correlation of the appearance of IAPV and CCD together.44 
High levels of bacteria, viruses, and fungi have been found in the guts of the recoverable dead 
bees. Early evidence does suggest the possible presence of a pathogen, given that some bee 
colonies have recovered once their bee boxes were irradiated.45 Researchers have found the 
fungus Nosema ceranae and other pathogens such as chalkbrood in some affected hives 
throughout the country.46 Some researchers have speculated that these high infection levels may 
be compromising the immune system of the honey bees, resulting in immune deficiencies in bees 
that may be among the possible causes for bee mortalities and disappearance.47 A 2009 study by 
researchers in Spain found further evidence that infection in bees by Nosema ceranae may be 
among the primary causes of CCD.48 
                                                             
40 Published interview with Maryann Frazier, Penn State University, January 28, 2007, at http://podcasts.psu.edu/
taxonomy/term/62; and MAAREC, “Colony Collapse Disorder,” http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/FAQ/FAQCCD.pdf. 
41 USDA, CCD Steering Committee, “Colony Collapse Disorder Action Plan,” June 20, 2007, at 
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/br/ccd/ccd_actionplan.pdf. 
42 D. L. Cox-Foster et al., “A Metagenomic Survey of Microbes in Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder,” Science, 
September 6, 2007, http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/318/5848/283. 
43 USDA, “Questions and Answers: Colony Collapse Disorder,” http://www.ars.usda.gov/News/docs.htm?docid= 
15572. The study also found IAPV in honey bees from Australia that had been imported into the United States, as well 
as in royal jelly imported from China. Further studies challenge the idea that IAPV is a recent introduction from 
imported bees. 
44 USDA press release, “Genetic Survey Finds Association Between CCD and Virus,” September 2007, 
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2007/070906.htm; and MAAREC statement, “Colony Collapse Disorder and Israeli 
Acute Paralysis Virus,” http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/CCDPpt/CCDbeekeepersStatementIAPV.pdf. 
45 K. Ramanujan, “Parasites, pathogens and pesticides called possible suspects in honeybee decimation,” Cornell 
Chronicle, Cornell University, May 17, 2007, http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/07/05_17_07.pdf. 
46 C. Henderson, J. Bromenshenk, L. Tarver, and D. Plummer, “National Honey Bee Loss Survey,” June 2007, 
http://www.beealert.info/. 
47 D. Cox Foster, Pennsylvania State University, and C. Rexrod, USDA’s ARS, statements before the Subcommittee on 
Horticulture and Organic Agriculture, U.S. House of Representatives, March 29, 2007, http://agriculture.house.gov/
testimony/110/h70329/CoxFoster.pdf and http://agriculture.house.gov/testimony/110/h70329/Rexroad.pdf; and 
published interview with Jerry Hayes, Florida’s Department of Agriculture, Apiary Section, March 2, 2007. 
48 M. Higes et al., “Honeybee colony collapse due to Nosema ceranae in professional apiaries,” Environmental 
Microbiology Reports, Vol. 1, Issue 2, February 2009. 
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Pesticides and Chemicals 
Of the possible causes of CCD being examined, one that has become the subject of debate is 
whether certain chemicals or combinations of chemicals could be contributing to CCD, including 
some pesticides and possibly some fungicides. Scientists have long been concerned that 
pesticides may have sub-lethal effects on bees, not killing them outright but instead impairing 
their development and behavior.49 
One class of insecticide being studied are neonicotinoids, which contain the active ingredient 
imidacloprid, and similar other chemicals, such as clothianidin and thiamethoxam. Honey bees 
are thought possibly to be affected by such chemicals, which are known to work their way 
through the plant up into the flowers and leave residues in the nectar and pollen (which is the 
food for young, developing bees). The scientists studying CCD have tested samples of pollen and 
have indicated findings of a broad range of substances, including insecticides, fungicides, and 
herbicides.50 These scientists note that the doses taken up by bees are not lethal, but they are 
concerned about possible chronic problems caused by long-term exposure. As noted by the NRC, 
some studies report sublethal effects of pesticides on bee foraging behavior that may impair the 
navigational and foraging abilities of honey bees.51 
Concerns about imidacloprid, as reported by beekeeping associations in the United Kingdom and 
France52 and by some U.S. beekeepers,53 have focused on its potential to affect complex 
behaviors in insects, including flight, navigation, olfactory memory, recruitment, foraging, and 
coordination. However, the NRC and some scientists who study CCD note there is conflicting 
information about the effect of these pesticides on honey bees. Still, the U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency has identified some of these chemicals as highly toxic to honey bees,54 and use 
of some of these pesticides has reportedly been discontinued in parts of Europe because of their 
potential effects on pollinators.55 However, bee colony losses are also occurring in Europe, where 
these chemicals are reportedly no longer used. In the United States, the Organic Consumers 
Association reports that bee colony losses are not occurring at organic beekeeping operations.56 
                                                             
49 Frazier, M., et. al, “What Have Pesticides Got To Do With It?” American Bee Journal, June 2008, 
http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/CCDPpt/WhatPesticidesToDoWithItJune08ABJ.pdf. 
50 S. Williams, “The Case of the Missing Bees,” Penn State Agriculture Magazine, Winter/Spring 2008, 
http://aginfo.psu.edu/psa/08WinSpr/bees.html. 
51 National Academy of Sciences, NRC, Status of Pollinators in North America, 2006. 
52 D. Cox-Foster and D. vanEngelsdorp, “Solving the Mystery of the Vanishing Bees,” Scientific American, March 31, 
2009; Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides, “Imidacloprid, Fact Sheet,” Journal of Pesticide Reform, 
Spring 2001, http://www.pesticide.org/imidacloprid.pdf; and Apiculteurs de France, “Composite Document of Present 
Position Relating to Gaucho, Sunflower and Bees,” http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/gaucho/
manifestation_paris_us.htm. 
53 Joe Cummins, “Neoniccotinoid insecticides used in seed dressing may be responsible for the collapse of honeybee 
colonies,” April 24, 2007, http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_4972.cfm. 
54 For example, see EPA’s fact sheet on clothianiden, issued May 3002, http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/factsheets/
clothianidin.pdf. 
55 D. vanEngelsdorp et al., “Fall Dwindle Disease: Investigations into the Causes of Sudden and Alarming Colony 
Losses Experienced by Beekeepers in the Fall of 2006,” December 15, 2006; published interview with Jerry Hayes, 
Florida’s Department of Agriculture, Apiary Section, March 2, 2007. 
56 Organic Consumers Association, “Honey Bee Health & Colony Collapse Disorder,” 
http://www.organicconsumers.org/bees.cfm. 
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Nevertheless, a number of environmental groups are taking legal action to highlight the 
possibility that pesticides and chemical loads may be contributing to colony declines. For 
example, in December 2009, a federal court in New York invalidated the U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) approval of the pesticide spirotetramat and ordered the agency to 
reevaluate the chemical, as a result of a suit filed by the Natural Resources Defense Council 
(NRDC) and the Xerces Society.57 The pesticide, manufactured by Bayer CropScience under the 
trade names Movento and Ultor, is thought to be potentially harmful to honey bees. NRDC also 
filed a lawsuit against the EPA in August 2008 to obtain information that they allege the U.S. 
government is withholding about the risks posed by pesticides to honey bees. NRDC claims that 
EPA has evidence of connections between pesticides and CCD.58 Also in August 2008, a German 
coalition group brought legal charges against Bayer AG, accusing them of “marketing dangerous 
pesticides” and contributing to bee colony declines.59 The coalition filed the charge in cooperation 
with German beekeepers who claim they lost hives because of the Bayer pesticide clothianidin 
dating back to May 2008. Some countries, including Germany, Italy and France, reportedly are 
either considering or have already instituted full or partial bans of neonicotinoid-based pesticides 
due to their potential impact on honey bee populations.60 
Other Factors 
Other reported theories include the effects of shifting spring blooms and earlier nectar flow 
associated with broader global climate and temperature changes,61 the effects of feed supplements 
that are produced from transgenic or genetically modified crops, such as high-fructose corn 
syrup,62 and also the effects of cell phone transmissions and radiation from power lines that may 
be interfering with a bee’s navigational capabilities.63 The contributions of these possible factors 
have not been substantiated by evidence examined by the key researchers of this issue.64 
Other Related Events 
In late 2008, beekeepers in some states began to raise concerns about live bee imports from 
Australia. Specifically, these concerns centered on reports that the Asian honey bee, Apis cerana, 
had been introduced to Australia. Asian honey bees, found in southeast Asia, are considered an 
                                                             
57 NRDC press release, “Big Win for Bees: Judge Pulls Pesticide” December 29, 2009, http://www.nrdc.org/media/
2009/091229.asp. 
58 NRDC press release, “EPA Buzz Kill: Is the Agency Hiding Colony Collapse Disorder Information?” August 18, 
2008, http://www.nrdc.org/media/2008/080818a.asp. 
59 “German Coalition Sues Bayer Over Pesticide Honey Bee Deaths,” Environmental News Service, August 25, 2008, 
http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/aug2008/2008-08-25-01.asp. 
60 BNA’s International Environmental Law Committee Newsletter, vol. 11, no. 1, February 2009, 
http://www.abanet.org/environ/committees/intenviron/newsletter/feb09/IELC_Feb09.pdf. 
61 W. Esaias, “Honey Bees, Satellites and Climate Change,” presentation at the Library of Congress, April 3, 2007. 
62 See, for example, Louise A. Malone and Minh-Hà Pham-Delègue, “Effects of transgene products on honey bees 
(Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus sp.),” Apidologie, 32, 2001, http://www.hortresearch.co.nz/files/science/
gmimpacts/m1403malone.pdf; also research conducted by Hans-Hinrich Kaatz, University of Halle, Germany, cited at 
http://www.sierraclub.org/biotech/references.asp. 
63 Reportedly, this theory originated with initial research conducted in 2003 by J. Khun and H. Stever of Landau 
University in Germany. 
64 Statements and expert testimony at a public hearing of the U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on 
Horticulture and Organic Agriculture, March 29, 2007. 
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invasive species of bees and are known to carry a mite (tropilaelaps clarae). Neither the Asian 
honey bee nor the mite are known to be present in the Western Hemisphere. However, U.S. 
beekeepers have expressed concerns that bee imports could result in the introduction of mites and 
other diseases and further contribute to stressors already facing domestic species.65 
In November 2008, Australia notified APHIS of an incursion of Asian honey bees in the Cairns, 
Queensland, area of northeastern Australia, and Australia voluntarily stopped issuing export 
certificates to ship honey bees to the United States. In response, APHIS required that all honeybee 
exports be derived from colonies 100 miles away from any find of Asian honey bees known to 
have occurred in the last two years. As of late December, Australian shipments of honey bees to 
the United States have resumed. APHIS’s decision to resume trade was based on data provided by 
Australia indicating that the areas outside the quarantine zone in Cairns are free the Asian honey 
bee and of the mites of concern.66 
Live bees (only queens with attendants and package bees) are allowed for import into the United 
States from Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Imports from other countries are restricted. 
Certain import requirements apply along with general restrictions regarding the transit of live 
honey bees, bee byproducts, and bee equipment.67 Items that are not allowed for transit include 
imports of whole colonies in hives, used beekeeping equipment, and pollen. Restrictions apply on 
beeswax for beekeeping and honey for bee feed, and require special treatment.68 
Issues for Congress 
Committee Actions and Hearings 
During the 110th Congress there were three House subcommittee hearings on honey bee colony 
declines and concerns about CCD. The House Subcommittee on Horticulture and Organic 
Agriculture held two hearings: one in March 2007 and a second in June 2008. The Subcommittee 
on Fisheries, Wildlife, and Oceans of the House Committee on Natural Resources held a hearing 
in June 2007 on the role of pollinators in ecosystem health, which also addressed concerns about 
bee colony declines. In the Senate, in April 2008, Chairwoman Barbara Boxer and other members 
of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee hosted a briefing on pollinators and their 
role in agricultural security.  
Policy options discussed at these congressional hearings and briefings focused on the need for 
increased federal funding for multi-disciplinary research and monitoring to document changes in 
pollination reserves, as well as additional technical support and assistance for beekeepers. 
Additional research funding would help support USDA’s research efforts and those at its 
laboratories located in Arizona, Louisiana, Maryland, Texas, and Utah.69 Other recommended 
                                                             
65 CRS communications with USDA APHIS on December 23, 2008. Also see, e.g., Kim Flottum, “Why the U.S. 
Should Stop Importing Bees from Australia,” December 15, 2008, at http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-
news/blogs/bees/australian-bee-imports-88121501?src=rss. 
66 CRS communications with USDA APHIS on December 23, 2008. 
67 For information, see USDA APHIS import requirements: “Regulated Organism and Soil Permits, Honey Bees and 
Other Bees,” at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/permits/organism/bees/index.shtml. 
68 See 7 CRF Part 322, Subpart E, “Importation and Transit of Restricted Articles.” 
69 There were reports in 2007 that the University of California at Davis was considering revitalizing its honey bee 
(continued...) 
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options included expanding crop insurance to include beekeepers and honey producers; providing 
a one-time payment for incurred losses; improving existing USDA conservation programs to 
better prevent habitat loss and sustain wildlife populations; emphasizing the importance of 
pollinator diversity and sustaining wild and native pollinator species; developing or improving 
existing federal and state best management practices for beekeepers; improving regulatory 
enforcement to prevent misuse of agricultural chemicals; and continuing the current marketing 
loan program for honey. 
2008 Farm Bill 
In May 2008, Congress enacted the 2008 farm bill (P.L. 110-246), which, among other things, 
provided additional funding for research and conservation programs addressing honey bees and 
pollinators. The law reflects provisions that were included in both the House- and Senate-passed 
versions of the farm bill, which addressed honey bees and pollinators as part of their 
conservation, specialty crop, research, and miscellaneous title provisions.  
Conservation Provisions 
The conservation title of the 2008 farm bill included language that broadly encourages habitat 
development and protection among the administrative requirements for native and managed 
pollinators under USDA’s conservation programs (Section 2708), and ensures that USDA’s 
conservation technical assistance includes standards that account for native and managed 
pollinators (Section 2706). These provisions could broaden the focus of USDA’s farm 
conservation programs to include pollinator habitats and habitat improvement among their goals, 
as well as require USDA to review its conservation practice standards with respect to managed 
and native pollinators. 
Research Provisions 
The research title of the 2008 farm bill identified pollinator protection among its so-called high-
priority research and extension areas (Section 7204). It provided for research and extension grants 
(1) to survey and collect data on bee colony production and health; (2) to investigate pollinator 
biology, immunology, ecology, genomics, and bioinformatics; (3) to conduct research on various 
factors that may be contributing to or associated with colony collapse disorder and other serious 
threats to the health of honey bees and other pollinators, including parasites and pathogens of 
pollinators, and the sublethal effects of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides on honey bees and 
native and managed pollinators; (4) to develop mitigative and preventative measures to improve 
native and managed pollinator health; and (5) to promote the health of honey bees and native 
pollinators through habitat conservation and best management practices. For this provision, the 
2008 farm bill authorized appropriations for grants at $10 million annually for FY2008-FY2012. 
The research provisions also directed USDA to increase its capacity and infrastructure to address 
colony collapse disorder and other long-term threats to pollinator health (including hiring 
additional personnel) and to conduct research on colony collapse disorder and other pollinator 
                                                             
(...continued) 
research program by hiring a bee breeder and geneticist and renovating the biology facility (“News Briefs,” AgriPulse, 
Vol. 3, No. 20, May 16, 2007). 
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issues at USDA’s facilities. Annual appropriations were authorized at $7.25 million (FY2008-
FY2012), with another $2.75 million annually (FY2008-FY2012) for honey bee pest and 
pathogen surveillance. The 2008 farm bill also directed USDA to submit an annual report to 
Congress on its response to CCD, indicating that the report should investigate the cause(s) of 
honey bee colony collapse and recommend appropriate strategies to reduce colony loss. 
Insurance and Disaster Provisions 
Other provisions in the 2008 farm bill supported pollinators through the bill’s crop insurance and 
other disaster assistance provisions. One such provision identifies honey farms as possible 
beneficiaries of the bill’s supplemental agricultural disaster assistance (Section 12033); another 
provision provides contracts for additional policies and studies to carry out research and 
development regarding insurance policies that cover loss of bees (Section 12023).  
Since enactment of the farm bill, USDA has created the Emergency Assistance for Livestock, 
Honey Bees, and Farm-Raised Fish Program (ELAP).70 This program, administered by USDA’s 
Farm Service Agency (FSA), provides disaster assistance for honey bee producers. The ELAP 
provides emergency relief to producers of livestock, honey bees, and farm-raised fish to aid in the 
reduction of losses because of disease, adverse weather, or other conditions, such as blizzards and 
wildfires. Eligible honey bee producers—those who incur physical losses of honey bees and 
honey bee hives because of colony collapse disorder—must provide documentation, and/or a 
certification that the loss of honey bees was due to CCD, from one or more of the following: 
registered entomologist; cooperative extension specialist; and/or land grant university. Additional 
information on this program is available at USDA’s website71 and at state county FSA offices.72  
Other Provisions 
The 2008 farm bill also contained provisions that generally support honey production. These 
include, for example, provisions pertaining to the National Honey Board (Section 10401-10402); 
provisions covering rates for marketing assistance loans for certain commodities, including honey 
(Section 1202); and provisions covering certain nutrition title provisions (such as Section 4231). 
USDA Actions and Funding 
USDA’s Action Plan 
USDA released its initial action plan for addressing CCD in July 2007. USDA’s action plan 
focuses on improving coordination and redirecting existing resources and research for mitigation 
and prevention, including education and outreach, as well as expanding research and diagnostic 
resources to prevent future losses, working with the land grant universities. It also coordinates 
activities across three USDA agencies: the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the Animal and 
                                                             
70 USDA’s final rule became effective in September 2009: 74 Federal Register 175: 46665-46683, 
http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2009/pdf/E9-21906.pdf. See CRS Report RS21212, Agricultural Disaster Assistance. 
71 See, for example, USDA, “Documenting Losses Under the Emergency Assistance for Livestock, Honey Bees, and 
Farm-Raised Fish Program (ELAP),” http://www.fsa.usda.gov/Internet/FSA_Notice/ldap_2.pdf. 
72 For information on individual county offices, see http://offices.sc.egov.usda.gov/locator/app. 
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Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture 
(NIFA). USDA’s focus on expanded research is consistent with the approach taken in the most 
recently introduced congressional bills and with recommendations by the American Honey 
Producers Association and the American Beekeeping Federation.73 
Under the plan, USDA would (1) conduct surveys and collect data on bee health; (2) analyze bee 
samples for pests, disease-causing pathogens, pesticide exposure, and other factors; (3) conduct 
controlled experiments to identify factors affecting bee health, including potential causes of 
colony collapses; and (4) develop best management practices and guidelines to improve general 
bee health and reduce susceptibility to colony collapses and other disorders among both honey 
bees and non-Apis bees.74 Aspects of USDA’s action plan were presented at a hearing before the 
Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife, and Oceans of the House Committee on Natural Resources 
in June 2007.75 
USDA’s 2007-2008 Progress Report 
In June 2009, USDA published its 2007-2008 progress report on ongoing and intended future 
research efforts related to honeybees and CCD, following on the action items in its action plan. 
As outlined in USDA’s progress report, prior study of the numerous possible causes for CCD has 
led researchers to further examine the hypothesis that CCD may be “a syndrome caused by many 
different factors, working in combination or synergistically.”76 Accordingly, future study will 
“focus increasingly on combinations and synergistic effects of factors in causing CCD.”77 The 
progress report provides detailed information on the status of ongoing research under each of the 
four elements of USDA’s action plan, including survey and (sample) data collection, analysis of 
existing samples, research to identify factors affecting honey bee health, and mitigative and 
preventive measures. The progress report is available at USDA’s CCD website at 
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/br/ccd/ccd_progressreport.pdf. 
Available USDA Research Funding 
Funding for honey bee and CCD research at USDA’s ARS has increased, following enactment of 
the 2008 farm bill (P.L. 110-246) and also FY2009 and FY2010 appropriations (P.L. 111-8 and 
P.L. 111-80, respectively), which, among other things, provide additional funding for research and 
                                                             
73 R. Addee, American Honey Producers Association, Statement before the Subcommittee on Horticulture and Organic 
Agriculture, House Committee on Agriculture, March 29, 2007, http://agriculture.house.gov/testimony/110/h70329/
Adee.pdf; D. Weaver, American Beekeeping Federation, Inc., Statement before the Subcommittee on Fisheries, 
Wildlife and Oceans, House Committee on Natural Resources, June 26, 2007, http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/
images/Documents/20070626/testimony_weaver.pdf. 
74 USDA, CCD Steering Committee, “Colony Collapse Disorder Action Plan,” June 20, 2007, http://www.ars.usda.gov/
is/br/ccd/ccd_actionplan.pdf. 
75 K. Hackett, USDA, Statement before the Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife and Oceans, House Committee on 
Natural Resources, June 26, 2007, http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/images/Documents/20070626/
testimony_hackett.pdf. 
76 USDA, Colony Collapse Disorder Progress Report, CCD Steering Committee, June 2009, http://www.ars.usda.gov/
is/br/ccd/ccd_progressreport.pdf. This is the first annual report mandated by the 2008 farm bill (Sec. 7204 (h) (4)) on 
Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). 
77 Ibid. 
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conservation programs addressing honey bees and pollinators. Total ARS funding for honey bee 
and CCD research has been as follows:78 
• FY2007—$7,675,000 
• FY2008—$7,798,000 
• FY2009—$8,290,000 
• FY2010—$9,790,000 (includes $1.5 million increase for CCD research) 
ARS also has an “Area-wide Project on Bee Health,” which consists of temporary funding of 
$670,000 in FY2008 and will continue for at least four additional years at approximately $1 
million per year.79 Additional funding is available to USDA’s NIFA, and includes combined 
research on honey bees, funding specific to CCD and bee health, and funding for various research 
labs and grants. Recently, emerging issues grants were awarded to Penn State University and the 
University of Georgia to study the effects of pesticides, pathogens, and miticides on pollinator 
populations.80 
 
Author Contact Information 
 
Renée Johnson 
Specialist in Agricultural Policy 
rjohnson@crs.loc.gov, 7-9588 
  
 
 
                                                             
78 CRS communication with USDA personnel, December 18, 2009. 
79 CRS communication with USDA personnel, December 4, 2008; Jeff Pettis, “Colony Collapse Disorder Affecting 
Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) Colonies,” October 2008 presentation, http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ppdc/2008/oct2008/
session7-ccd.pdf.  
80 Statements by Jeff Pettis, USDA, to Senate Environment and Public Works committee staff, April 9, 2008.