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Diplomacy
The United Nations, with its headquarters in
New York City, is the largest international
diplomatic organization.
Diplomacy is the art and practice of con-
ducting negotiations between representatives
of groups or states. It usually refers to inter-
national diplomacy, the conduct of interna-
tional relations through the intercession of
professional diplomats with regard to issues
of peace-making, trade, war, economics and
culture. International treaties are usually ne-
gotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement
by national politicians.
The word stems from the Greek word
"diploma", which literally means ’folded in
two’. In ancient Greece, a diploma was a cer-
tificate certifying completion of a course of
study, typically folded in two. In the days of
the Roman Empire, the word "diploma" was
used to describe official travel documents,
such as passports and passes for imperial
roads, that were stamped on double metal
plates. Later, the meaning was extended to
cover other official documents such as treat-
ies with foreign tribes. In the 1700s the
French called their body of officials attached
to foreign legations the corps "diplomatique".
The word "diplomacy" was first introduced
into the English language by Edmund Burke
in 1796, based on
the French word
"diplomatie".[1]
In an informal or social sense, diplomacy
is the employment of tact to gain strategic
advantage or to find mutually acceptable
solutions to a common challenge, one set of
tools being the phrasing of statements in a
non-confrontational, or polite manner.
Diplomats and diplomat-
ic missions
The collective term for a group of diplomats
from a single country who reside in another
country is a diplomatic mission. Ambassador
is the most senior diplomatic rank; a diplo-
matic mission headed by an ambassador is
known as an embassy, with the exception of
permanent missions at the United Nations,
the Organization of American States, or other
multilateral organizations, which are also
headed by ambassadors. The collective body
of all diplomats of particular country is called
that country’s diplomatic service. The collect-
ive body of all diplomats assigned to a partic-
ular country is the diplomatic corps. (See
also diplomatic rank.)
History
Europe
Ancient roots of diplomacy
The ability to practice diplomacy is one of the
defining elements of a state, and diplomacy
has been practiced since the first city-states
were formed millennia ago. For most of hu-
man history diplomats were sent only for spe-
cific negotiations, and would return immedi-
ately after their mission concluded. Diplo-
mats were usually relatives of the ruling fam-
ily or of very high rank in order to give them
legitimacy when they sought to negotiate
with the other state.
One notable exception involved the rela-
tionship between the Pope and the Byzantine
Emperor; papal agents, called apocrisiarii,
were
permanently
resident
in
Con-
stantinople. After the 8th century, however,
conflicts between the Pope and Emperor
(such as the Iconoclastic controversy) led to
the breaking of close ties.
The origins of diplomacy lie in the stra-
tegic and competitive exchange of impressive
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Diplomacy
1
gifts, which may be traced to the Bronze Age
and recognized as an aspect of Homeric
guest-friendship.[2] At the highest level, of
course, the diplomatic exchange involved the
gift or exchange of elite and culturally valu-
able women. Thus diplomacy and trade have
been inexorably linked from the outset. "In
the framework of diplomatic relations it was
customary
for Byzantine emperors and
Muslim rulers, especially the ’Abbāsids and
the Fātimids, as well as for Muslim rulers
between themselves, to exchange precious
gifts, with which they attempted to impress
or surpass
their counterparts,"
remarks
David Jacoby, in the context of the economics
of silk in cultural exchange among Byzanti-
um, Islam and the Latin West:[3] merchants
accompanied emissaries, who often traveled
on commercial ships. At a later date, it will
be recalled that the English adventurer and
trader Anthony Sherley convinced the Per-
sian ruler to send the first Persian embassy
to Europe (1599–1602).
Roots of modern diplomacy
Early modern diplomacy’s origins[4] are often
traced to the states of Northern Italy in the
early Renaissance, with the first embassies
being established in the thirteenth century.
Milan played a leading role, especially under
Francesco Sforza who established permanent
embassies to the other city states of North-
ern Italy. It was in Italy that many of the tra-
ditions of modern diplomacy began, such as
the presentation of an ambassador’s creden-
tials to the head of state.
From Italy the practice was spread to the
other European powers. Milan was the first
to send a representative to the court of
France in 1455. However, Milan refused to
host French representatives fearing espion-
age and that the French representatives
would intervene in its internal affairs. As for-
eign powers such as France and Spain be-
came increasingly involved in Italian politics
the need to accept emissaries was recog-
nized. Soon the major European powers were
exchanging representatives. Spain was the
first to send a permanent representative; it
appointed an ambassador to the Court of
England in 1487. By the late 16th century,
permanent missions became customary. The
Holy Roman Emperor, however, did not regu-
larly send permanent legates, as they could
not represent the interests of all the German
princes (who were in theory subordinate to
the Emperor, but in practice independent).
During that period the rules of modern
diplomacy were further developed. The top
rank of representatives was an ambassador.
At that time an ambassador was a nobleman,
the rank of the noble assigned varying with
the prestige of the country he was delegated
to. Strict standards developed for ambassad-
ors, requiring they have large residences,
host lavish parties, and play an important
role in the court life of their host nation. In
Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic
ambassador, the French and Spanish repres-
entatives would have a retinue of up to a hun-
dred. Even in smaller posts, ambassadors
were very expensive. Smaller states would
send and receive envoys, who were a rung
below ambassador. Somewhere between the
two
was
the
position
of
minister
plenipotentiary.
Diplomacy was a complex affair, even
more so than now. The ambassadors from
each state were ranked by complex levels of
precedence that were much disputed. States
were normally ranked by the title of the sov-
ereign; for Catholic nations the emissary
from the Vatican was paramount, then those
from the kingdoms, then those from duchies
and principalities. Representatives from re-
publics were ranked the lowest. Determining
precedence between two kingdoms depended
on a number of factors that often fluctuated,
leading to near-constant squabbling.
Ambassadors, nobles with little foreign ex-
perience and no expectation of a career in
diplomacy, needed to be supported by large
embassy staff. These professionals would be
sent on longer assignments and would be far
more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking
officials about the host country. Embassy
staff would include a wide range of employ-
ees, including some dedicated to espionage.
The need for skilled individuals to staff em-
bassies was met by the graduates of uni-
versities, and this led to a great increase in
the study of international law, modern lan-
guages,
and
history
at
universities
throughout Europe.
At the same time, permanent foreign min-
istries began to be established in almost all
European states to coordinate embassies and
their staffs. These ministries were still far
from their modern form, and many of them
had extraneous internal responsibilities. Bri-
tain had two departments with frequently
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diplomacy
2
French diplomat Charles Maurice de
Talleyrand-Périgord is considered one of the
most skilled diplomats of all time.
overlapping powers until 1782. They were
also far smaller than they are currently.
France, which boasted the largest foreign af-
fairs department, had only some 70 full-time
employees in the 1780s.
The elements of modern diplomacy slowly
spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriv-
ing by the early eighteenth century. The en-
tire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the
French Revolution and the subsequent years
of warfare. The revolution would see com-
moners take over the diplomacy of the
French state, and of those conquered by re-
volutionary armies. Ranks of precedence
were abolished. Napoleon also refused to ac-
knowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning
several British diplomats accused of schem-
ing against France.
After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of
Vienna of 1815 established an international
system of diplomatic rank. Disputes on pre-
cedence among nations (and therefore the
appropriate diplomatic ranks used) persisted
for over a century until after World War II,
when the rank of ambassador became the
norm. In between that time, figures such as
the German Chancellor Otto von Bismark
were renowned for international diplomacy.
Asia
A French ambassador in Ottoman dress,
painted by Antoine de Favray, 1766, Pera
Museum, Istanbul.
Ancient era
Ancient India, with its kingdoms and dyn-
asties, had a long tradition of diplomacy. The
oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy,
Arthashastra, is attributed to Kautilya (also
known as Chanakya), who was the principal
adviser
to Chandragupta Maurya,
the
founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in
the 3rd century BC, (whose capital was Patli-
putra, today’s Patna, the chief city of Bihar
state). Arthashastra is a complete work on
the art of kingship, with long chapters on tax-
ation and on the raising and maintenance of
armies. It also incorporates a theory of dip-
lomacy, of how in a situation of mutually con-
testing kingdoms, the wise king build alli-
ances and tries to checkmate his adversaries.
The envoys sent at the time to the courts of
other kingdoms tended to reside for extended
periods of time, and Arthashastra contains
advice on the deportment of the envoy, in-
cluding the trenchant suggestion that ’he
should sleep alone’. The highest morality for
the king is that his kingdom should prosper.
China and Diplomacy
Further information: Foreign relations of Im-
perial China
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Diplomacy
3
One of the earliest realists in international
relations theory was the 6th century BC milit-
ary strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of
The Art of War. He lived during a time in
which rival states were starting to pay less
attention to traditional respects of tutelage to
the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figure-
head monarchs while each vied for power
and total conquest. However, a great deal of
diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering
land, and signing peace treaties was neces-
sary for each warring state.
From the Battle of Baideng (200 BC) to
the Battle of Mayi (133 BC), the Han Dynasty
was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and
pay an exorbitant amount of tribute (in silk,
cloth, grain, and other foodstuffs) to the
powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had
been consolidated by Modu Shanyu. After the
Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han
(r. 180–157)
that
they controlled areas
stretching from Manchuria to the Tarim Bas-
in oasis city-states, a treaty was drafted in
162 BC proclaiming that everything north of
the Great Wall belong to nomads’ lands,
while everything south of it would be re-
served for Han Chinese. The treaty was re-
newed no less than nine times, but did not re-
strain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han
borders. That was until the far-flung cam-
paigns of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC)
which shattered the unity of the Xiongnu and
allowed Han to conquer the Western Re-
gions; under Wu, in 104 BC the Han armies
ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to
battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellen-
istic Greek areas.
Portraits of Periodical Offering, a 6th century
Chinese painting portraying various emissar-
ies; ambassadors depicted in the painting
ranging from those of Hephthalites, Persia to
Langkasuka, Baekje(part of the modern
Korea), Qiuci, and Wo (Japan).
The Koreans and Japanese during the
Chinese Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) looked
to the Chinese capital of Chang’an as the hub
of civilization and emulated its central bur-
eaucracy as the model of governance. The
Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in
this period, although they halted these trips
in 894 during the Tang’s imminent collapse.
After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from
755 to 763, the Tang Dynasty was in no posi-
tion to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim
Basin. After several conflicts with the Tibetan
Empire spanning several different decades,
the Tang finally made a truce and signed a
peace treaty with them in 841.
In the 11th century during the Song Dyn-
asty (960–1279), there were cunning ambas-
sadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who
achieved diplomatic success with the Liao
Dynasty, the often hostile Khitan neighbor to
the north. Both diplomats secured the right-
ful borders of the Song Dynasty through
knowledge of cartography and dredging up
old court archives. There was also a triad of
warfare and diplomacy between these two
states and the Tangut Western Xia Dynasty to
the northwest of Song China (centered in
modern-day Shaanxi). After warring with the
Lý Dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077,
Song and Lý made a peace agreement in
1082 to exchange the respective lands they
had captured from each other during the
war.
Long before the Tang and Song dynasties,
the Chinese had sent envoys into Central
Asia, India, and Persia starting with Zhang
Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable
event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese
embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Kh-
mer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century.
Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the dis-
tinctive period of Chinese exploration. Since
the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the Chinese
also became heavily invested in sending dip-
lomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions
into the Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Ara-
bia, East Africa, and Egypt. Chinese maritime
activity was increased dramatically during
the commercialized period of the Song Dyn-
asty, with new nautical technologies, many
more private ship owners, and an increasing
amount of economic investors in overseas
ventures.
During the Mongol Empire (1206-1294)
the Mongols created something similar to
today’s diplomatic passport called paiza. The
paiza were in three different types (golden,
silver, and copper) depending on the envoy’s
level of importance. With the paiza, there
came authority that the envoy can ask for
food, transport, place to stay from any city,
village, or clan within the empire with no
difficulties.
Since the 17th century, there was a series
of treaties upheld by Qing Dynasty China and
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Diplomacy
4
Czarist Russia, beginning with the Treaty of
Nerchinsk in the year 1689. This was fol-
lowed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Con-
vention of Peking in the mid 19th century.
As European power spread around the
world in the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies so too did its diplomatic model and sys-
tem become adopted by Asian countries.
Modern era
Diplomatic relations within the Early Modern
era of Asia were depicted as an environment
of prestige and Status. It was maintained that
one must be of noble ancestry in order to
represent an autonomous state within the in-
ternational arena.[5] Therefore the position of
diplomat was often revered as an element of
the elitist class within Asia. A state’s ability
to practice diplomacy has been one of the un-
derlying defining
characteristics
of
an
autonomous state. It is this practice that has
been employed since the conception of the
first city-states within the international spec-
trum. Diplomats in Asia were originally sent
only for the purpose of negotiation[6]. They
would be required to immediately return
after their task was completed. The majority
of diplomats initially constituted the relatives
of the ruling family. A high rank was be-
stowed upon them in order to present a sense
of legitimacy with regards to their presence.
Italy, the Ottoman Empire, and China were
the first real states that perpetuated environ-
ments of diplomacy. During the early modern
era diplomacy evolved to become a crucial
element of international relations within the
Mediterranean and Asia.
The Ottoman Empire and
Diplomacy
Diplomatic
traditions outside of Europe
differed greatly. A feature necessary for dip-
lomacy is the existence of a number of states
of somewhat equal power, as existed in Italy
during the Renaissance, and in Europe for
much of the modern period. By contrast, in
Asia and the Middle East, China and the Ot-
toman Empire were reluctant to practice bi-
lateral diplomacy as they viewed themselves
to be unquestionably superior to all their
neighbours (hence, set up smaller nations as
tributaries and vassals). The Ottoman Turks,
for instance, would not send missions to oth-
er states, expecting representatives to come
to Istanbul.
It would not be until
the
nineteenth century that the Ottoman Empire
established permanent embassies in other
capitals.
Relations with the government of the Otto-
man Empire (known as the Sublime Porte)
were
particularly
important
to
Italian
states.[7]. The maritime republics of Genoa
and Venece depended less and less upon
their nautical capabilities, and more and
more upon the perpetuation of good relations
with the Ottomans[8]. Interactions between
various merchants, diplomats, and religious
men between the Italian and Ottoman em-
pires helped inaugurate and create new
forms of diplomacy and statecraft. Eventually
the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was
originally a negotiator, evolved into a per-
sona that represented an autonomous state
in all aspects of political affairs. It became
evident that all other sovereigns felt the need
to accommodate themselves diplomatically,
due to the emergence of the powerful politic-
al environment of the Ottoman Empire[9].
One could come to the conclusion that the at-
mosphere of diplomacy within the early mod-
ern period revolved around a foundation of
conformity to Ottoman culture.
Italy and Diplomacy
The origins of modern diplomacy within the
international spectrum of politics, could often
be traced back to the states of Northern
Italy. This was during the early renaissance,
where the first diplomatic embassies were es-
tablished in the thirteenth century[10]. The
state of Milan played an incredible part in the
establishment of permanent embassies within
the city states of Northern Italy. Various dip-
lomatic traditions were also conceived within
Italy. The presentation of an Ambassador’s
credentials and acknowledgments are ele-
ments that were inaugurated in Italian early
modern diplomacy[11].
The practice of diplomacy and its various
intricacies were also spread to various other
autonomous European states. Milan created
the first diplomatic international gesture in
1455, by sending a representative to the
court of France[12]. It was extremely contro-
versial however, that they would not accept
the same gesture from France, due to the
fears of espionage and intervention in intern-
al affairs. It had eventually become evident
that as super powers such as France and
Spain grew in size and strength, and there
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Diplomacy
5
was an overarching necessity to accept any
form of diplomatic effort within the interna-
tional arena. Eventually Italy paved the way
for all European power to exchange repres-
entatives. By the late 16th century, perman-
ent emissaries were standard practice[13].
Diplomatic strategy
Real world diplomatic negotiations are very
different from intellectual debates in a uni-
versity where an issue is decided on the mer-
it of the arguments and negotiators make a
deal by splitting the difference. Though diplo-
matic agreements can sometimes be reached
among liberal democratic nations by appeal-
ing to higher principles, most real world dip-
lomacy has traditionally been heavily influ-
enced by hard power.
The interaction of strength and diplomacy
can be illustrated by a comparison to labor
negotiations. If a labor union is not willing to
strike, then the union is not going anywhere
because management has absolutely no in-
centive to agree to union demands. On the
other hand, if management is not willing to
take a strike, then the company will be
walked all over by the labor union, and man-
agement will be forced to agree to any de-
mand the union makes. The same concept ap-
plies to diplomatic negotiations.
There are also incentives in diplomacy to
act reasonably, especially if the support of
other actors is needed. The gain from win-
ning one negotiation can be much less than
the increased hostility from other parts. This
is also called soft power.
Many situations in modern diplomacy are
also rules based. When for instance two WTO
countries have trade disputes, it is in the in-
terest of both to limit the spill over damage
to other areas by following some agreed-upon
rules.
Diplomatic immunity
The sanctity of diplomats has long been ob-
served. This sanctity has come to be known
as diplomatic immunity. While there have
been a number of cases where diplomats
have been killed, this is normally viewed as a
great breach of honour. Genghis Khan and
the Mongols were well known for strongly in-
sisting on the rights of diplomats, and they
would often wreak horrific vengeance against
any state that violated these rights.
Diplomatic rights were established in the
mid-seventeenth century in Europe and have
spread throughout the world. These rights
were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Conven-
tion on Diplomatic Relations, which protects
diplomats from being persecuted or prosec-
uted while on a diplomatic mission. If a diplo-
mat does commit a serious crime while in a
host country he may be declared as persona
non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats
are then often tried for the crime in their
homeland.
Diplomatic
communications
are
also
viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have
long been allowed to carry documents across
borders without being searched. The mech-
anism for this is the so-called "diplomatic
bag" (or, in some countries, the "diplomatic
pouch"). While radio and digital communica-
tion have become more standard for em-
bassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite
common and some countries, including the
United States, declare entire shipping con-
tainers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensit-
ive material (often building supplies) into a
country.[14]
In times of hostility, diplomats are often
withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as
well as in some cases when the host country
is friendly but there is a perceived threat
from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and
other diplomats are sometimes recalled tem-
porarily by their home countries as a way to
express displeasure with the host country. In
both cases, lower-level employees still re-
main
to actually do
the business of
diplomacy.
Diplomats as a
Guarantee
In the Ottoman Empire, the diplomats of Per-
sia and other states were seen as a guarantee
of good behavior. If a nation broke a treaty or
if their nationals misbehaved the diplomats
would be punished. Diplomats were thus
used as an enforcement mechanism on treat-
ies and international law. To ensure that pun-
ishing a diplomat mattered rulers insisted on
high-ranking figures. This tradition is seen by
supporters of Iran as a legal basis of the
1979 Iranian hostage crisis. In imitation of al-
leged previous practices supporters of the
Iranian Revolution attempted to punish the
United States for its alleged misdeeds by
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diplomacy
6
holding their diplomats hostage. Diplomats
as a guarantee were also employed some-
times in pre-modern Europe and other parts
of Asia.
Diplomacy and
espionage
Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or
gathering of
intelligence. Embassies are
bases for both diplomats and spies, and some
diplomats are essentially openly-acknow-
ledged spies. For instance, the job of military
attachés includes learning as much as pos-
sible about the military of the nation to which
they are assigned. They do not try to hide
this role and, as such, are only invited to
events allowed by their hosts, such as milit-
ary parades or air shows. There are also
deep-cover spies operating in many em-
bassies. These individuals are given fake pos-
itions at the embassy, but their main task is
to illegally gather intelligence, usually by co-
ordinating spy rings of locals or other spies.
For the most part, spies operating out of em-
bassies gather little intelligence themselves
and their identities tend to be known by the
opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can
be expelled from an embassy, but for the
most
part
counter-intelligence
agencies
prefer to keep these agents in situ and under
close monitoring.
The information gathered by spies plays
an increasingly important role in diplomacy.
Arms-control treaties would be impossible
without the power of reconnaissance satel-
lites and agents to monitor compliance. In-
formation gleaned from espionage is useful in
almost all forms of diplomacy, everything
from trade agreements to border disputes.
Diplomatic resolution of
problems
Various processes and procedures have
evolved over time for handling diplomatic is-
sues and disputes.
Arbitration and mediations
For more information, see Category:Diplo-
matic conferences
Nations sometimes resort to international
arbitration when faced with a specific ques-
tion or point of contention in need of
resolution. For most of history, there were no
official or formal procedures for such pro-
ceedings. They were generally accepted to
abide by general principles and protocols re-
lated to international law and justice.
Sometimes these took the form of formal
arbitrations and mediations. In such cases a
commission of diplomats might be convened
to hear all sides of an issue, and to come
some sort of ruling based on international
law.
In the modern era, much of this work is of-
ten carried out by the International Court of
Justice at the Hague, or other formal commis-
sions, agencies and tribunals, working under
the United Nations. Below are
some
examples.
• Hay-Herbert Treaty Enacted after the
United States and Britain submitted a
dispute to international mediation about
the US-Canadian border.
Conferences
Other times, resolutions were sought through
the convening of international conferences.
In such cases, there are fewer ground rules,
and fewer formal applications of internation-
al law. However, participants are expected to
guide themselves through principles of inter-
national fairness, logic, and protocol.
Some examples of these formal confer-
ences are:
• Congress of Vienna (1815) - After
Napoleon was defeated, there were many
diplomatic questions waiting to be
resolved. This included the shape of the
map of Europe, the disposition of political
and nationalist claims of various ethnic
groups and nationalities wishing to have
some political autonomy, and the
resolution of various claims by various
European powers.
• The Congress of Berlin (June 13 - July 13,
1878) was a meeting of the European
Great Powers’ and the Ottoman Empire’s
leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878. In the
wake of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78,
the meeting’s aim was to reorganize
conditions in the Balkans.
Negotiations
Sometimes nations convene official negoti-
ation processes to settle an issue or dispute
between several nations which are parties to
a dispute.
These are
similar
to
the
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Diplomacy
7
conferences mentioned above, as there are
technically no established rules or proced-
ures. However, there are general principles
and precedents which help define a course
for such proceedings.
Some examples are
• Camp David accord Convened in 1978 by
President Jimmy Carter of the United
States, at Camp David to reach an
agreement between Prime Minister
Mechaem Begin of Israel and President
Anwar Sadat of Egypt. After weeks of
negotiation, agreement was reached and
the accords were signed, later leading
directly to the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty
of 1979.
• Treaty of Portsmouth Enacted after
President Theodore Roosevelt brought
together the delegates from Russia and
Japan, to settle the Russo-Japanese War.
Roosevelt’s personal intervention settled
the conflict, and caused him to win the
Nobel peace prize.
Diplomatic recognition
Diplomatic recognition is an important factor
in determining whether a nation is an inde-
pendent state. Receiving recognition is often
difficult, even for countries which are fully
sovereign. For many decades after its becom-
ing independent, even many of the closest al-
lies of the Dutch Republic refused to grant it
full recognition. Today there are a number of
independent entities without widespread dip-
lomatic recognition, most notably the Repub-
lic of China on Taiwan. Since the 1970s, most
nations have stopped officially recognizing
the ROC’s existence on Taiwan, at the insist-
ence of the People’s Republic of China. Cur-
rently, the United States and other nations
maintain informal relations through de facto
embassies, with names such as the American
Institute in Taiwan. Similarly, Taiwan’s de
facto embassies abroad are known by names
such as the Taipei Economic and Cultural Re-
presentative Office. This was not always the
case, with the US maintaining official diplo-
matic ties with the ROC, recognizing it as the
sole and legitimate government of all of Ch-
ina until 1979, when these relations were
broken off as a condition for establishing offi-
cial relations with Communist China.
The Palestinian National Authority has its
own diplomatic service, however Palestinian
representatives in most Western countries
are not accorded diplomatic immunity, and
their missions are referred to as Delegations
General.
Other unrecognized regions which claim
independence include Abkhazia, Transnistria,
Somaliland, South Ossetia, Nagorno Kara-
bakh, and the Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus. Lacking the economic and political
importance of Taiwan, these nations tend to
be much more diplomatically isolated.
Though used as a factor in judging sover-
eignty, Article 3 of the Montevideo Conven-
tion states, "The political existence of the
state is independent of recognition by other
states."
Informal diplomacy
Informal diplomacy (sometimes called Track
II diplomacy) has been used for centuries to
communicate between powers. Most diplo-
mats work to recruit figures in other nations
who might be able to give informal access to
a country’s leadership. In some situations,
such as between the United States and the
People’s Republic of China a large amount of
diplomacy is done through semi-formal chan-
nels using interlocutors such as academic
members of thinktanks. This occurs in situ-
ations where governments wish to express in-
tentions or to suggest methods of resolving a
diplomatic situation, but do not wish to ex-
press a formal position.
Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of in-
formal diplomacy, in which non-officials (aca-
demic scholars, retired civil and military offi-
cials, public figures, social activists) engage
in dialogue, with the aim of conflict resolu-
tion, or confidence-building. Sometimes gov-
ernments may fund such Track II exchanges.
Sometimes the exchanges may have no con-
nection at all with governments, or may even
act in defiance of governments; such ex-
changes are called Track III.
Paradiplomacy
Paradiplomacy refers to the international re-
lations conducted by subnational, regional,
local or non-central governments. The most
ordinary case of paradiplomatic relation refer
to co-operation between bordering political
entities. However, interest of federal states,
provinces, regions etc., may extend over to
different regions or to issues gathering local
governments in multilateral fora worldwide.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diplomacy
8
Some non-central governments may be al-
lowed to negotiate and enter into agreement
with foreign central states.
Cultural diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy is a part of diplomacy. It
alludes to a new way of making diplomacy by
involving new non governmental and non
professional actors in the making of dip-
lomacy. In the frame of globalization, culture
plays a major role in the definition of identity
and in the relations between people. Joseph
Nye points out the importance of having a
soft power besides a hard power. When clas-
sical diplomacy fails, a better knowledge can
help bridging the gap between different cul-
tures. Cultural diplomacy becomes a subject
of academic studies based on historical es-
says on the United States, Europe, and the
Cold War.
See also
• Charm Offensive
• Confidence-building measures
• Cowboy diplomacy
• Diplomacy Monitor, a tool for tracking
Internet-based public diplomacy
• Diplomatic mission
• Diplomatic passport
• Diplomatic rank
• Diplomatic law
• Economic diplomacy
• Flipism
• Foreign minister
• Foreign policy
• Foreign policy analysis
• Foreign policy doctrine
• Gunboat diplomacy
• Intercultural competence
• International law
• International relations
• Multilateralism
• Paradiplomacy
• Peace makers
• Peacemaking
• Peace treaty
• Ping Pong Diplomacy
• Preventive Diplomacy
• Protocol
• Public diplomacy
• Shuttle diplomacy
• Track II diplomacy
• Transformational Diplomacy
References
[1] DP S1995R: Diplomacy - An Historical
Perspective
[2] M.I. Finley, The World of Odysseus(1954;
1978) ch. "Wealth and Labour"; on
archaic gift-giving in general, Marcel
Mauss, Ian Cunnison, tr. The Gift, 1954.
[3] Jacoby, "Silk Economics and Cross-
Cultural Artistic Interaction: Byzantium,
the Muslim World, and the Christian
West", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 58
(2004:197-240) p. 213.
[4] Historical discontinuity between
diplomatic practice of the ancient and
medieval worlds and modern diplomacy
has been questioned; see, for instance,
Pierre Chaplais, English Diplomatic
Practice in the Middle Ages (Continuum
International Publishing Group, 2003), p.
1 online.
[5] “A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/
history.htm
[6] “A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/
history.htm.
[7] Goffman, Daniel. “Negotiating with the
Renaissance State: The Ottoman Empire
and the New Diplomacy.” In The Early
Modern Ottomans: Remapping the
Empire. Eds. Virginia Aksan and Daniel
Goffman. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 61-74.
[8] Goffman, Daniel. “Negotiating with the
Renaissance State: The Ottoman Empire
and the New Diplomacy.” In The Early
Modern Ottomans: Remapping the
Empire. Eds. Virginia Aksan and Daniel
Goffman. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 61-74.
[9] Goffman, Daniel. “Negotiating with the
Renaissance State: The Ottoman Empire
and the New Diplomacy.” In The Early
Modern Ottomans: Remapping the
Empire. Eds. Virginia Aksan and Daniel
Goffman. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 61-74.
[10]“A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/
history.htm.
[11]“A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diplomacy
9
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/
history.htm.
[12]“A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/
history.htm.
[13]“A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/
history.htm.
[14]http://everything2.com/e2node/
diplomatic%2520pouch
• A Guide to Diplomatic Practice by Sir
Ernest Satow, Longmans, Green & Co.
London & New York, 1917. A standard
reference work used in many embassies
across the world (though not British ones).
Now in its fifth edition (1998) ISBN
0-582-50109-1
• Diplomacy: Theory & Practice, 3rd edition,
by GR Berridge, Palgrave, Basingstoke,
2005, ISBN 1-4039-9311-4
• Journey to Become a Diplomat: With a
Guide to Careers in World Affairs by
George Cunningham, FPA Global Vision
Books 2005, ISBN 0-87124-212-5
• Inside a U.S. Embassy: How the Foreign
Service Works for America by Shawn
Dorman (Editor), American Foreign
Service Association, Second edition
February 2003, ISBN 0-9649488-2-6
• Foreign Ministries: Managing Diplomatic
Networks and Optimizing Value by Kishan
S. Rana and Jovan Kurbalija (Editors),
DiploFoundation, 2007, ISBN
978-99932-53-16-7
• The 21st Century Ambassador:
Plenipotentiary to Chief Executive by
Kishan S Rana, DiploFoundation,2004,
ISBN 99909-55-18-2
• Language and Diplomacy by Kurbalija J.
and Slavik H. (Editors), DiploProjects,
Mediterranean Academy of Diplomatic
Studies, Malta, 2001, ISBN
99909-55-15-8. The volume contains
collection of paper presented at the
international conference. (See of them [1])
• Renaissance Diplomacy by Garrett
Mattingly, Dover Publications, ISBN
978-0486255705
Diplomatic Training
Institutions
• International Forum on Diplomatic
Training (gateway to diplomatic training
academies and institutes)
• Foreign Service Institute India
• Diplomatic Academy of Vienna
• International School of Geneva
• Geneva School of Diplomacy and
International Relations
• United Nations International School of
Hanoi
• United Nations International School
• University for Peace
• Vienna International School
• Moscow State Institute of International
Relations
• MRI - Master in Relazioni Internazionali -
MA supported by the Italian Diplomatic
Institute
• Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced
International Studies, Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Maryland
• Royal United Services Institute
• School of International Service
• Centre for International Studies and
Diplomacy, School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London, UK
• Whitehead School of Diplomacy and
International Relations, Seton Hall
University, South Orange, New Jersey
• Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy,
Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts
• Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign
Service, Georgetown University,
Washington, DC
• Woodrow Wilson School of Public and
International Affairs, Princeton University,
New Jersey
• Instituto Rio Branco - Diplomatic school of
the Brazilian Government
• Instituto del Servicio Exterior de la Nacion
- Diplomatic Academy of Argentina
• The George P. Shultz National Foreign
Affairs Training Center
• Instituto Matías Romero, Mexico City
• DiploFoundation Malta and Geneva
• Centre for Politics and Diplomatic Studies,
University of Leicester, UK¨
• Instituto del Servicio Exterior "Manuel
Maria de Peralta" - Diplomatic Academy of
Costa Rica
• Diplomatic Academy of Ukraine
(www.dipacadem.kiev.ua)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diplomacy
10
External links
• The United Nations
• U.S. Dept. of State Foreign Affairs
Handbook - Using Diplomatic Notes
• American diplomats describe their careers
in Frontline Diplomacy: The Foreign
Affairs Oral History Collection of the
Association for Diplomatic Studies and
Training, a site at the Library of Congress.
• DiploFoundation A non-profit organisation
specialized in online diplomatic training,
research in international relations,
diplomacy and internet governance
• http://www.disarmamentinsight.blogspot.com
Disarmament Insight] This blog is aimed
at negotiators, policy wonks, researchers
and anyone curious about disarmament
and human security
• Diplomacy of Small States. An
international conference dealing with the
issues of foreign policy, negotiation
tactics, diplomatic missions, crisis and
humanitarian diplomacy of small states.
See also conference discussion papers.
• Society of St Gabriel
• Modern Diplomacy Reviewed A collection
of articles analyzing modern diplomacy
from various angles: diplomatic analogy,
impact of internet on diplomacy,
diplomatic tools and methods, diplomatic
representation, good governance, public
diplomacy
• Books written by diplomats [2]
• Diplomatic Dictionary
• Diplomacy Quotes [3]
• Johan Baverbrant
• World Politics Review: A Foreign Policy
and National Security Daily
• Mexico Diplomat
• A Shared World: Christians and Muslims
in the Early Modern Mediterranean. By:
M. Greene. http://books.google.com/
books?hl=en&lr=&id=Ecy575SBY1cC&oi=fnd&pg=PP9&dq=diplomacy+%2B+early+modern+medite
• “A Brief History of Diplomacy.” E-
Diplomat: Global Portal for Diplomats.
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/history.htm.
• Trading Territories: Mapping the Early
Modern World. By: Jerry Brotton.
http://books.google.com/
books?hl=en&lr=&id=nVexxh4nV1EC&oi=fnd&pg=P
• Trading Nations: Jews and Venetians in
the Early Modern Eastern. By: B Arbel.
http://books.google.com/
books?hl=en&lr=&id=JwgVr2cINXsC&oi=fnd&pg=PP
L7C7&sig=gzic6Tkl2fmWKWnBy5zPWMGn0Y8
• Politics and Diplomacy in Early Modern
Italy: The Structure of Diplomatic
Practice, 1450-1800. By: D Frigo.
http://books.google.com/
books?hl=en&lr=&id=tvEHSKJwjMcC&oi=fnd&pg=P
uW5WAh4
• Brummett, Palmira. “Imagining the Early
Modern Ottoman Space, from World
History to Piri Reis.” In The Early Modern
Ottomans: Remapping the Empire. Eds.
Virginia Aksan
• Fleet, Kate. “The Ottoman diplomats on
eighteenth-century Poland : Contempt or
discouragement?” Oriente moderno: vol.
79, no. 1, pp. 97-100, 1999
• Goffman, Daniel. “Negotiating with the
Renaissance State: The Ottoman Empire
and the New Diplomacy.” In The Early
Modern Ottomans: Remapping the
Empire. Eds. Virginia Aksan and Daniel
Goffman. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 61-74.
• Imber, Colin. “Ottoman Seapower and
Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of
Discovery.” Historian[Allentown], vol.62,
no.1, pp.128-129, 1999
• Wicquefort, Abraham de. 1716. The
Embassador and His Functions To Which
Is Added, an Historical Discourse,
Concerning the Election of the Emperor
and the Electors. Trans. John Digby.
London: Printed fr B. Lintott, pp. 253-56.
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