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Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire History of the Ottoman Empire This article is part of a series Rise (1299–1453) Interregnum Growth (1453–1683) Stagnation (1683–1827) Köprülü era Sultanate of Women Tulip period Decline (1826–1908) Tanzimat era 1st Constitutional Era Dissolution (1908–1922) 2nd Constitutional Era Partition the Ottoman Empire Portal The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922) is the period followed after the decline of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908) in which had the watershed event of Young Turk Revolution, establishment of second constitutional era and ending with the parti- tioning of the Empire by the victorious sides of the World War I in the early part of the 20th century. Establishment of Consti- tutional Era, 1908 See also: Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire) In July 1908 in a few short weeks the Young Turk Revolution changed the political struc- ture of Empire. Public demonstration during Young Turk Re- volution in the Sultanahmet district of Istan- bul, 1908 Abdul Hamid’s regime which lasted more than 35 years and the former autocratic sys- tem developed under his control were des- troyed. The Armenians, Roman Catholic Syri- ans, Greeks of the Archipelago, and Bulgari- ans of Macedonia forgot Empire inaugura- tioned the new fraternity and progress. There was a unification theme and groups which fought against each other wished to work out the salvation of a common country. Heads of Macedonian bands (ITRO) fraternized with the members of the "Committee of Union and Progress"; Greeks and Bulgarians embraced one another under the second biggest party "Liberal Union". The Bulgarian federalist wing welcomed in the revolution and later joined mainstream political life as the Bul- garian section of People’s Federative Party (Ottoman Empire). Even, some of its leaders like Sandanski and Chernopeev participated in the march on Istanbul to depose the "at- tempt to dismantle constitution (Countercoup (1909))". The former centralist formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs and like the PFP participated in Ottoman elections. Ar- menians which formed "Armenakan", "Social Democrat Hunchakian Party" (Hunchakian ) and "Armenian Revolutionary Federation" (Dashnak or Tashnag) begin to work openly as there was no Abdul Hamid’s pressure on them. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 1 Reorganization Celebration of the new constitution which was amended form of Kanûn-ı Esâsî, the "24th July", Young Turk Revolution, which had support from the British, gave a way to a new politic- al system. The influence of Germany was not as dominant as Abdul Hamid’s regime. The new political system revolutionized the ad- ministration of the Empire; a new radical renovation period established. The civil com- missioners of Abdul Hamid’s system, the of- ficers of the gendarmerie of Abdul Hamid’s system, the European members of the finan- cial commission, the Ottoman Public Debt Ad- ministration which was establisted under Ab- dul Hamid’s system, were gradually disappeared. Aligned with the revolution’s institutions becoming stable, the foreign relations (schemes of relations) of the Empire took Europe by surprise. Russia—supported by England and France, who thought the mo- ment had come, for the governing of the Straits to be improved in the favor of the European powers. Their influence in Abdul Hamid’s Porte — which was not enough - re- jected the compensation. The new regime ab- solutely refused. Dissatisfaction with con- stitutional regime Once the first enthusiasm had passed with little progress, dissatisfaction with the new regime became evident as early as 1909. The theme of unification did not last long. The newly established political system assumed that the citizens of the Empire could unite under one flag which represent the Ottoman- ism (tr:Osmanli , Osmanlis)). The process of replacing the monarchic institutions with constitutional institutions and electoral policies was neither as simple nor as blood- less as the regime change itself. The peri- phery of the Empire continued to splinter un- der the pressures of local revolutions. Due to Abdul Hamid’s policies, equilibri- um between Muslims and Christians was im- possible to reach. Overburdened with reli- gious and ethnic strife, the new government had little ability to solve the problems of the empire. Cretan union with Greece, 1908 Just after the revolution (1908), the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece by tak- ing advantage of revolution as well as the timing of Zaimis’s vacation away from the is- land.[1] The 1908 left the issue unsolved between the Empire and Cretans. In 1909 after the parliament elected the governing structure, CUP decided that if order was maintained and the rights of Muslims were respected issue would be solved with negotiations. Albanians and Latin Alphabet, 1909 See also: Albanian nationalism and independence Albanians of Tirana and Elbassan were one of the first groups that joined to the constitu- tional movement. However, due to shifting national borders in the Balkans, the Albani- ans had been marginalized as a nationless people. The most significant factor uniting the Albanians, their spoken language, lacked a standard literary form and even a standard alphabet. Each of the three available choices, the Latin, Cyrillic, and Arabic scripts, implied different political and religious orientations opposed by one or another element of the population. In July 1908, a month after a Young Turk rebellion in Macedonia suppor- ted by an Albanian uprising in Kosovo and Macedonia escalated into widespread insur- rection and mutiny within the imperial army, Sultan Abdül Hamid II agreed to demands by the Young Turks to restore constitutional rule. Many Albanians participated in the Young Turks uprising, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the em- pire. The Young Turks lifted the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language. As a consequence, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 2 Albanian intellectuals meeting in Bitola in 1908 chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script. The new government also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians’ unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to im- pose the Arabic alphabet. The Albanians re- fused to submit to the Young Turks’ cam- paign to "Ottomanize" them by force. Attempt to dismantle constitu- tion, 1909 See also: Countercoup (1909) and 31 March Incident Hristo Chernopeev’s band (in 1903), which will be part of march to Istanbul in deposing the Countercoup (1909) After nine months into the new government, discontent found expression in a fundament- alist movement which attempted to dismantle the Second Constitutional Era and revert it with a monarchy under Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The Sultan’s countercoup gained traction when he promised to restore the Caliphate, eliminate secular policies, and restore the rule of Islamic law. The "31 March Incident" rebelled against the countercoup. On April 13, 1909, Abdul Hamid II was finally removed from the throne, and Mehmed V became the Sultan. The constitution granted by the Sultan Mehmed V, 5 August 1909, proclaimed the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, military service (allowing Christians into the military for the first time), and political rights. The new constitution was perceived as a big step for the establishment of a common law for all subjects. The position of Sultan was greatly reduced to a figurehead, while still retaining some constitutional powers, such as the ability to declare war. The new constitution, aimed to bring more sovereignty to the public, could not address certain public services, such as the ottoman public debt, the Ottoman Bank or Ottoman Public Debt Administration because of their international character. The same held true of most of the companies which were formed to execute public works such as Baghdad Railway, tobacco and cigarette trades of two French companies the "Regie Compagnie in- teressee des tabacs de l’empire Ottoman", and "Narquileh tobacco". Italian War, 1911 Italian forces in Tripoli Italy declared war on the Empire on Septem- ber 29, 1911, demanding the turnover of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The empire’s response was weak so Italian forces took those areas on November 5 of that year (this act was con- firmed by an act of the Italian Parliament on February 25, 1912). Although minor, the war was an important precursor of World War I as it sparked nationalism in the Balkan states. Seeing how easily the Italians had de- feated the disorganized Ottomans, the mem- bers of the Balkan League attacked the Em- pire before the war with Italy had ended. Balkan Wars, 1912–1913 The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century and Montenegro, sought additional territories from the Al- bania, Macedonia, and Thrace, behind their nationalistic arguments. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for the Balkan Wars. On October 10 12 the collective note of the powers was handed in at From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 3 Ethnic exchanges & expulsions during Balkan wars Ottomans (190,000–200,000) Greeks (150,000–160,000) Bulgarians (200,000) Constantinople. CUP responded to demands of European powers on reforms in Macedonia on October 14.[2] But before further action could be taken war broke out. While Powers were asking Empire to reform Macedonia, under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Ser- bia and Bulgaria in March 1912, between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912, and Montenegro subsequently concluded agree- ments between Serbia and Bulgaria respect- ively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War. In 1913 a nationalist uprising broke out in Albania, and on October 8, the Balkan League, consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, mounted a joint attack on the Ottoman Empire, starting the First Balkan War. The Second Balkan War soon followed. Albania declared inde- pendence on November 28, Empire agreed to a ceasefire on December 2, and its territory losses were finalized in 1913 in the treaties of London and Bucharest. Albania became in- dependent, and the Empire lost almost all of its European territory (Kosovo, Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Macedonia and western Thrace) to the four allies. 1913-Military Hospital Camp. 1913-Cholera was common among soldiers 1913-Pain of the soldiers Cession of Kuwait, 1913 The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 was a short-lived agreement signed in July 1913 between the Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI and the British over several issues. However it was the issue over the status of Kuwait that came to be the only long-lived result, as its outcome was formal independence for Kuwait. During World War I, the Ottoman Empire was financially crippled and the invading British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "inde- pendent sheikdom under British protectorate." Cession of Albania, 1913 Albania had been under Ottoman rule from around 1478. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece laid claim to Albanian-populated lands during Balkan Wars, the Albanians de- clared independence.[3] The European Great Powers endorsed an independent Albania in 1913, after the Se- cond Balkan War leaving outside the Albani- an border more than half of the Albanian population and their lands, that were parti- tioned between Montenegro,Serbia and Greece. They were assisted by Aubrey Her- bert, a British MP who passionately advoc- ated their cause in London. As a result, Her- bert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, H. H. Asquith, from accepting. Instead the of- fer went to William of Wied, a German prince who accepted and became sovereign of the new Principality of Albania. The young state, however, collapsed with- in weeks of the outbreak of World War I.[3] Before the War, 1914 In early 1914 the Ottoman Government was concerned with three main issues. The first was improving relations with Bulgaria; the second was to encourage support from the Germans, and the third was to settle negoti- ations with Europe about the Armenian reform. In regard to the first, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria showed sympathy to one another be- cause they suffered as a result of the territor- ies lost with the Balkan Wars (1912-1913). They also had bitter relations with Greece. It was natural and beneficial for them to work From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 4 for the development of policies that enable to gain better positions in the region. In regard to the second, there were three military missions active at the turn of 1914. These were British Naval Mission led by Ad- miral Limpus, French Gendarme Mission led by General Moujen, and German Military Mission led by Goltz. German Military Mis- sion become the most important among these three. The history of German military rela- tions went back to the 1880’s. Grand Vizier the Sait Halim Pasha and Minister of War Ah- met Izzet Pasha was instrumental in develop- ing the initial relations. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz to es- tablish the initial mission. General Goltz served two periods in within two years. In the early 1914, the Minister of War was a former military attache to Berlin, Enver Pasha, was at the helm. About the same time, General Otto Liman von Sanders, was nominated to the command of the 1st Army. 1st Army was the biggest which was located in the European side. General Liman von Sanders and Enver Pasha practically shared the commander-in-chief position. In regard to the third, an Armenian reform package was negotiated with Russia. Russia, the protector of Armenians and acting on be- half of the Great Powers, was instrumental of introduction of reforms to the Armenian cit- izens of the empire. Armenian reform pack- age, which was solidified in February 1914, was based on the arrangements nominally made in 1878. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revoc- able during that period. Capitulations & Public Debt When the Capitulations were first established it was supposed that foreign assistance could benefit the Empire. Capitulations stipulated that the privileges was based on religion. The intercourse of the Christian world with the Mohammedan world was founded upon dif- ferent principles. Foreigners had secured many privileges or "capitulations" that they could not be brought under local jurisdiction, but were subject only to the codes of justice of their own countries, administered through their own consular courts. As a result, almost all the business of the country was in the hands of non-Muslim people — Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Italians, French, Germans, and English, which were under non-ottoman (loc- al) jurisdiction. Wherever mines have been developed, railroads or irrigation works con- structed, foreign capital and foreign brains have been chiefly responsible. This system produced and environment which he Muslim’s of the Empire stayed poor, and the standard of education for this group never in- creased. And so it would, if it were not that foreigners occupy a privileged position in the country. In fact, citizens of Great Britain, Italy, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary were in many respects in a separate class from Muslim citizens, whether Turks, Greeks, Armenians, or Jews. The Empire also per- ceived the capitulations as a reason for cor- ruption. Officials, representing different jur- isdictions, sought bribes at every opportun- ity, withheld the proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory tax system, ruined every struggling industry by graft, and fought against every show of independence on the part of Empire’s many subject peoples. A cit- izen of any of the great powers was practic- ally exempt from the payment of income taxes and several other kinds of taxes to which the Turk was subject. He was immune from search, could secure passports from his own consul, and could be tried in courts of his own nationality. All these special priv- ileges together constituted a body of priv- ileges known as "Capitulations." On Septem- ber 10, 1915, Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations", which the capitulation hold- ers refused to recognize her action. Ottoman public debt was part of a larger schemes of political control, through which the commercial interests of the world had seek to gain advantages that may not be to Empire’s interest. The total pre-war debt of Empire was $716,000,000. France had 60 percent of the total, Germany was 20 per- cent, and Great Britain was 15 percent. The debt was administered by a Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was exten- ded to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (Central bank). Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the empire. The Council had power every financial affairs. Its control even extended to determine the tax on live stock in districts. Siding with Ger- many, with the minimum dept holder put the Empire in the position to pay its dept or even pay a war indemnity. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 5 World War I, 1914–1918 German light cruiser Breslau’s after the Pur- suit of Goeben and Breslau bombarded the Black Sea port of Theodosia At the outbreak of the war Ottoman govern- ment declared neutrality with the "Notifica- tion of Neutrality" on August 18.[4] On September 10 the Grand Vizier annulled the Capitulations, which ended the special priv- ileges they granted to foreign nationals. On September 28 the straits were closed to nav- al traffic. Straits were vital for the communic- ations between the Western Allies and Rus- sia. On October 19, a German battlecruiser, the Goeben, and a German light cruiser, the Breslau was received by Ottoman officials. Along an agreement with the German milit- ary mission, the Committee of Union and Pro- gress did not discharge the crews of these ships. On October 21, six hundred more Ger- man officers reported to arrive along the mil- itary mission. On October 29 Allies presented a note to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha that they had an agreement with Egypt and any hostility towards Egypt will be treated as de- claration of war. On October 29, after the Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, Breslau bombarded the Black Sea port of Theodosia. On November 2 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha expressed re- gret to Allies for the operations of the navy. Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergey Sazonov said it is too late and Russia con- sidered this raid as an act of war. The Cabin- et tried to explain that hostilities were begun without its sanction by German officers serving in the navy. Allies insisted on the re- paration to Russia, the dismissal of German officers from the Goeben and Breslau, and the internment of the German ships until the end of the war. But before Ottoman govern- ment responded Great Britain and France de- clared war on Ottoman Empire on November 5. CUP’s official Declaration of War came on November 14.[5] There were objective reasons for govern- ment’s choice. Initially government, espe- cially minster of state Talaat Pasha, had looked Britain as a side. But Britain had not maintained an isolated position in Europe. Russia was the pivotal point. When Britain was drawn into the Triple Entente and began to cultivate relations with Russia, Porte be- came distrustful. The Porte had gradually drifted, with opposition from the parliament, into close political relations with Germany. The relationship between Great Britain and France had encouraged Italy to seize Tripoli. Russian designs on straits (to open waters from its black sea ports) were well known, and these conditions put Great Britain, France, and Russia against Germany. Porte’s policy would naturally incline toward depend- ence on the Berlin. Berlin-Ottoman alliance promised to isolate Russia. Ottoman-German alliance was negotiated. In exchange for money and future control over Russian territ- ory, the Ottoman Government abandoned a neutral position and sided with Germany. The Empire fall into a disorder with the deceleration of war along the Germany. On November 11 a conspiracy discovered in Istanbul against Germans and CUP, which some of the CUP leaders were shot. This fol- lowed the November 12 revolt in Adrlanople against German military mission. On Novem- ber 13 a bomb exploded in Enver Pasha’s palace, which killed five German officers but missed the Enver Pasha. These events fol- lowed on November 18 more Anti-German plots. Committees formed around the country to rid country siding Germany. Army and navy officers protested against assumption of authority by Germans. On December 4 wide- spread riots throughout the country. On December 13 Anti-war demonstration by wo- men in Konak and Erzerum. Throughout December CUP dealt with mutiny among sol- diers in barracks and among naval crews. The head of German Military Mission Field Marshal von der Goltz had a conspiracy against his life. Empire with Russia See also: Caucasus Campaign and Persian Campaign Ottoman’s entrance to war greatly increased the Triple Entente’s military burdens. Russia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 6 Russian Cossacks of the Russian Caucasus Army at the battle of Sarikamis had to fight on the Caucasus Campaign alone and Persian Campaign along with the Great Britain. İsmail Enver Pasha was set off for the Battle of Sarıkamış (Caucasus Campaign), with the intention of recapturing Batum and Kars, overrunning Georgia and occupying north-western Persia and the oil fields. Fight- ing the Russians in the Caucasus, however, the Ottomans lost ground—and over 100,000 soldiers—in a series of battles. The 1917 Russian revolution gave the Ot- tomans presented a new chance. Neither the Russian soldiers nor the Russian people wanted to continue the war. On March 9 1917, Special Transcaucasian Committee was established with Member of the State Duma V. A. Kharlamov as the Chairman to replace the Imperial Viceroy Nicholas Nikolaevich by the Russian Provisional Government as the highest organ of civil administrative body in the Transcaucasia. On December 5, 1917, the armistice of Erzincan (Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) signed between the Russians and Ottomans in Erzincan that ended the armed conflicts between Russia and Ottoman Em- pire.[6] On March 3, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. It stipulated that Bolshev- ik Russia cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan. These lands had been captured by Russia during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Empire with British & France See also: Mesopotamian campaign, Sinai and Palestine Campaign, and Battle of Gallipoli Great Britain was obliged to defend India and her southern Persian oil territory by under- taking the Mesopotamian campaign. She had British troops entering Baghdad, March 1917 also to protect Egypt against the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. These campaigns strained Allied resources and relieved Germany. Initially Ahmed Djemal Pasha was ordered to gather an army in Palestine with which to threaten the Suez Canal. In response, Al- lies—including the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ("ANZACs")—opened another front with the Battle of Gallipoli. The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Ed- mund Allenby. Empire with Armenia See also: Armenian Genocide, Democratic Republic of Armenia, and Caucasus Campaign Staff of Armenian volunteers in 1914, Khetcho (died in 1915, around Van), DRO, Ar- men Garo In 1917 the Russian Caucasus Army deserted the frontline. The Armenian soldiers under Russian Empire, Armenian volunteer units, realigned themselves under the command of From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 7 General Tovmas Nazarbekian, with Dro as a civilian commissioner. The frontline had three main divisions: Movses Silikyan, Adri- anic and Mikhail Areshian. There were Ar- menian partisian guerrilla detachments ac- companying these main units. The line from Van to Erzincan was organized through these units. On March 3 1918, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. It stipulated that Bolshev- ik Russia cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan. These lands had been captured by Russia during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obligated the Rus- sians to demobilize Armenian national forces.[7] Between March 14 - April 1918 the Tr- abzon peace conference held among the Ot- toman Empire and the delegation of the Tran- scaucasian Diet (Transcaucasian Sejm). En- ver Pasha offered to surrender all ambitions in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman reacquisition of the east Anatoli- an provinces at Brest-Litovsk at the end of the negotiations.[8] On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation Akaki Chkhen- keli accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position[9]. The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledge the exist- ence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire[9]. In April 1918, the Ottoman 3rd Army fi- nally went on the offensive. In early May, 1918, the Ottoman army faced with the newly declared Democratic Republic of Armenia. The conflict led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. Although the Armeni- ans managed to inflict a defeat on the Otto- mans at the Battle of Sardarapat, the Otto- man army won the later battle and scattered the Armenian army. On May 28 1918, the Dashnaks of Armenian national liberation movement declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia through the Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians (unified form of Ar- menian National Councils) with the dissolu- tion of Transcaucasian Democratic Federat- ive Republic. The new Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Batum. in June, 1918, Armenians in the mountain- ous Karabag region, under the leadership of Andranik Toros Ozanian, established the Re- public of Mountainous Armenia and resisted the Ottoman 3rd army.[10] In July, Ottomans faced with the Centrocaspian Dictatorship at the Battle of Baku, with the goal of taking Baku on the Caspian Sea. Empire in Home front Soldiers of the Sharif of Mecca carrying the Arab Flag during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918 Ottoman Empire dealt with the Arab Revolt. Sharif Hussein ibn Ali rebelled against the Ottoman rule during the Arab Revolt of 1916. An exchange of letters with British High Commissioner Henry McMahon convinced him that his assistance on the side of the Triple Entente would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between Egypt and Persia, with the excep- tion of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. Hussein was the official leader of the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans. During World War I, the Ottoman govern- ment also faced difficulties on the home front, including isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia that led to an order for the Tehcir Law of June 1, 1915 to February 8, 1916 (deportation) of Armenians from the re- gion. Some academics define the deporta- tions as the Armenian Genocide.[11] This view is disputed by the Turkish Government, which maintains that most of the Armenian mortalities were the result of conditions that had effect on World War I casualties, and the civil war within the historical roots of the re- gion, which pushed Armenian and Muslim populations, back-and-forth within the war zone. Turkish authorities also claim that de- portations (Tehcir Law) were not the main contribution to total Armenian mortality dur- ing World War I and the claims for an organ- ized crime against the Armenians, by From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 8 Seventy year old priest leading Armenians during Armenian resistance Teskilati Mahsusa or the special organization were also in dispute, even if the very bad conditions of the Armenians (also some Muslims) were not. Armistice, October 30, 1918 See also: Ottoman casualties of World War I 1918 was marked with at best a serious food shortage and famine occupied the Empire The armed conflicts were ended with the Armistice of Mudros. The WWI years were a disaster to Otto- man Empire. The land loss was enormous, human loss was bigger, which Ottoman Muslim casualties was only one part of the story. The former Breslau was sunk by a mine at the entrance to the Dardanelles, on January 20 1919. The battle cruiser Goeben was beached by British warships on the same day. Partitioning of the Empire The initial peace agreement with the Otto- man Empire was the Armistice of Mudros. This was followed by Occupation of Istanbul. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire brought international conflicts which were discussed during the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The peace agreement, Treaty of Sevres, was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Allies. The Treaty of Sèvres presented one of the thorniest problems before the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The text of the treaty with Ottomans was not made public until May, 1920. Contrary to general expectations, Sultanate was not terminated and allowed to retain Istanbul and a small strip of territory around the city. The shores of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles planned to be interna- tionalized, so that the gates of the Black Sea kept open. The interior of Asia Minor (Anato- lia), the first seat of Ottoman power six cen- turies ago, continues to be under Turkish sovereignty. The United Kingdom obtained virtually everything it had sought—according to the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement made together with France in 1916, while the war was still going on—from the empire’s partition. Its terms were admittedly severe, and they were widely criticized as vindictive. The sub- sequent years showed that it was also im- practicable. Sèvres was the end of the Otto- man Empire. Question of the CUP See also: Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-20 and Malta exiles Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was the ruling party during this period. Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–1920 were courts- From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 9 martials, which the leadership of the CUP and selected former officials were court-mar- tialled with/including the charges of subver- sion of the constitution, wartime profiteering, and the massacres of both Greeks and Ar- menians.[12] The courts-martial became a stage for political battles. The trials helped the Liberal Union root out the CUP from the political arena. Question of the Sultanate See also: Occupation of Istanbul Departure of Mehmed VI, last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, 1922 Treaty of Sèvres was destined never to be ratified. Elections were held throughout Anatolia and with the participation of some parliamentarians, who had escaped from Istanbul, a new government was formed in Ankara. The rest of the story is the Turkish War of Independence.The Treaty of Lausanne announced the new Turkish State interna- tionally. This new state gave the ’coup de grâce’ to the Ottoman state, in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new republican assembly of Turkey. Question of the Caliphate See also: Ottoman Caliphate Besides the control of the physical lands, an- other question of importance was originated from the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman Caliphs never claimed to be religious des- cendant of the Prophet but they were non- etheless an important authority figure within the Ottoman Empire. Muslims of India and of Anatolia supported and recognized the Otto- man caliphate for instance. As Sultans of the Empire, the Ottoman rulers had a very strong position, but the Sultan of Morocco, the Mah- dists of the Egyptian Sudan, the Senussi in the Libyan Desert, the Wahabis in central Abdülmecid II the last Caliph of the Ottoman Caliphate Arabia, never acknowledged the title of Ca- liph as being higher than the Sultans’ as the leader of state. Such recognition was also not given by the Arabs of the Hedjaz, Palestine, and Syria, which contain the holy places of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem. The last official remnant of the em- pire—the title of caliphate—was constitution- ally abolished on 3 March 1924. With the ab- olishment of the Ottoman Caliphate by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, throughout the country from Mecca to Aleppo, the Ottoman Caliph’s name was re- placed in the Friday liturgy by that of Hus- sein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, the hereditary guardian of the holy cities of the Hedjaz, who is referred to as "The Commander of the Faithful". References [1] Ion, Theodore P., "The Cretan Question," The American Journal of International Law, April, 1910, pp. 276-284 [2] Archives Diplomatiques, third series, vol. 126, p. 127. [3] ^ Raymond Zickel and Walter R. Iwaskiw, editors. (1994). ""NATIONAL AWAKENING AND THE BIRTH OF ALBANIA, 1876–1918," Albania: A From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 10 Country Study". [1]. http://countrystudies.us/albania/20.htm. Retrieved on 9 April 2008. [4] Notification of Neutrality [5] CUP Declaration of War, November 14 [6] Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan 1905-1920, page 119 [7] Hovannisian. "Armenia’s Road to Independence", pp. 288-289. ISBN 1-4039-6422-X. [8] Ezel Kural Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Page 326 [9] ^ Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293 [10]Mark Malkasian, Gha-Ra-Bagh": the emergence of the national democratic movement in Armenia page 22 [11] Josh Belzman (April 23, 2006). "PBS effort to bridge controversy creates more". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/ 12397821/. Retrieved on 2006-10-05. [12]Armenien und der Völkermord: Die Istanbuler Prozesse und die Türkische Nationalbewegung. Hamburg: Hamburger Edition. 1996. p. 185. Further reading • Lewis, Bernard (2001-08-30). The Emergence of Modern Turkey (3 ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. p. 568. ISBN 0195134605. See also Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" Categories: History of the Ottoman Empire This page was last modified on 15 May 2009, at 07:30 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax- deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 11
