C H A P T E R 1 C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 1 The techniques of physical examination and history taking that you are about to learn embody time-honored skills of healing and patient care. Your abil- ity to gather a sensitive and nuanced history and to perform a thorough and accurate examination deepens your patient relationships, focuses your patient assessment, and sets the direction of your clinical thinking. The quality of your history and physical examination governs your next steps with the patient and guides your choices from the initially bewildering array of secondary testing and technology. Over the course of becoming an accomplished clinician, you will polish these important relational and clinical skills for a lifetime. As you enter the realm of patient assessment, you begin integrating the es- sential elements of clinical care: empathic listening; the ability to interview patients of all ages, moods, and backgrounds; the techniques for examining the different body systems; and, finally, the process of clinical reasoning. Your experience with history taking and physical examination will grow and expand, and the steps of clinical reasoning will soon begin with the first moments of the patient encounter: identifying problem symptoms and abnormal find- ings; linking findings to an underlying process of pathophysiology or psycho- pathology; and establishing and testing a set of explanatory hypotheses. Work- ing through these steps will reveal the multifaceted profile of the patient before you. Paradoxically, the very skills that allow you to assess all patients also shape the image of the unique human being entrusted to your care. Clinical Assessment: The Road Ahead This chapter provides a road map to clinical proficiency in three critical areas: the health history, the physical examination, and the written record, or “write-up.” It describes the components of the health history and how to or- ganize the patient’s story; it gives an approach and overview to the physical ex- amination and suggests a sequence for ensuring patient comfort; and, finally, it provides an example of the written record, showing documentation of find- ings from a sample patient history and physical examination. By studying the subsequent chapters of the book and perfecting the skills of examination and history taking described, you will cross into the world of patient assessment— gradually at first, but then with growing satisfaction and expertise. After you work through this chapter to chart the tasks ahead, you will be directed by subsequent chapters in your journey to clinical competence. Chapter 2, Interviewing and the Health History, expands on the techniques An Overview of Physical Examination and History Taking
  THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES 2 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G and skills of good interviewing; Chapters 3 through 16 detail techniques for examining the different body systems. Once you master the elements of the adult history and examination, you will extend and adapt these techniques to children and adolescents. Children and adolescents evolve rapidly in both temperament and physiology; therefore, the special approaches to the inter- view and examination of children at different ages are consolidated in Chap- ter 17, Assessing Children: Infancy Through Adolescence. Finally, Chapter 18, Clinical Reasoning, Assessment, and Plan, explores the clinical reasoning process and how to document your evaluation, diagnoses, and plan. From this blend of mutual trust, respect, and clinical expertise emerges the timeless re- wards of the clinical professions. THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES As you read about successful interviewing, you will first learn the elements of the Comprehensive Health History. For adults, the comprehensive his- tory includes Identifying Data and Source of the History, Chief Complaint(s), Present Illness, Past History, Family History, Personal and Social History, and Review of Systems. As you talk with the patient, you must learn to elicit and organize all of these elements of the patient’s health. Bear in mind that dur- ing the interview this information will not spring forth in this order! How- ever, you will quickly learn to identify where to fit in the different aspects of the patient’s story. As you gain experience assessing patients in different settings, you will find that new patients in the office or in the hospital merit a comprehensive health history; however, in many situations a more flexible focused, or problem- oriented, interview may be appropriate. Like a tailor fitting a special garment, you will adapt the scope of the health history to a number of factors: the pa- tient’s concerns and problems; your goals for assessment; the clinical setting (inpatient or outpatient; specialty or primary care); and the amount of time available. Knowing the content and relevance of all components of the com- prehensive health history allows you to choose those elements that will be most helpful for addressing patient concerns in different contexts. The components of the comprehensive health history structure the patient’s story and the format of your written record, but the order shown here should not dictate the sequence of the interview. Usually the interview will be more fluid and will follow the patient’s leads and cues, as described in Chapter 2. Each segment of the history has a specific purpose, which is sum- marized below. These components of the comprehensive adult health history are more fully described in the next few pages. The comprehensive pediatric history appears in Chapter 17. These sample adult and pediatric health histories follow stan-
  THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 3 Identifying Data Reliability Chief Complaint(s) Present Illness Past History Family History Personal and Social History Review of Systems ■ Identifying data—such as age, gender, occupation, marital status ■ Source of the history—usually the patient, but can be family member, friend, letter of referral, or the medical record ■ If appropriate, establish source of referral, since a written report may be needed. Varies according to the patient’s memory, trust, and mood The one or more symptoms or concerns causing the patient to seek care ■ Amplifies the Chief Complaint, describes how each symptom developed ■ Includes patient’s thoughts and feelings about the illness ■ Pulls in relevant portions of the Review of Systems (see below) ■ May include medications, allergies, habits of smoking and alcohol, since these are frequently pertinent to the present illness ■ Lists childhood illnesses ■ Lists adult illnesses with dates for at least four categories: medical; surgical; obstetric/ gynecologic; and psychiatric ■ Includes health maintenance practices such as: immunizations, screening tests, lifestyle issues, and home safety ■ Outlines or diagrams of age and health, or age and cause of death of siblings, parents, and grandparents ■ Documents presence or absence of specific illnesses in family, such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, etc. Describes educational level, family of origin, current household, personal interests, and lifestyle Documents presence or absence of common symptoms related to each major body system Components of the Health History dard formats for written documentation, which will be useful for you to learn. As you review these histories, you will encounter a number of techni- cal terms for symptoms. Definitions of terms, together with ways to ask about symptoms, can be found in each of the regional examination chapters. As you acquire the techniques of the history taking and physical examination, remember the important differences between subjective information and ob- jective information, as summarized in the table below. Knowing these dif- ferences helps you apply clinical reasoning and cluster patient information. These distinctions are equally important for organizing written and oral pre- sentations concerning the patient.
  THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES 4 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G The Comprehensive Adult Health History Date and Time of History. The date is always important. You are strongly advised to routinely document the time you evaluate the patient, especially in urgent, emergent, or hospital settings. Identifying Data. Includes age, gender, marital status, and occupa- tion. The source of history or referral can be the patient, a family member or friend, an officer, a consultant, or the medical record. Patients requesting evaluations for schools, agencies, or insurance companies may have special priorities compared to patients seeking care on their own initiative. Desig- nating the source of referral helps you to assess the type of information pro- vided and any possible biases. Reliability. Should be documented if relevant. For example, “The patient is vague when describing symptoms and unable to specify details.” This judg- ment reflects the quality of the information provided by the patient and is usually made at the end of the interview. Chief Complaint(s) Make every attempt to quote the patient’s own words. For example, “My stomach hurts and I feel awful.” Sometimes patients have no overt com- plaints, in which case you should report their goals instead. For example, “I have come for my regular checkup”; or “I’ve been admitted for a thorough evaluation of my heart.” Present Illness This section of the history is a complete, clear, and chronologic account of the problems prompting the patient to seek care. The narrative should include the onset of the problem, the setting in which it has developed, its manifestations, and any treatments. The principal symptoms should be well-characterized, with descriptions of (1) location, (2) quality, (3) quantity or severity, (4) tim- ing, including onset, duration, and frequency, (5) the setting in which they occur, (6) factors that have aggravated or relieved the symptoms, and (7) as- Subjective Data Objective Data What the patient tells you The history, from chief complaint through Review of Systems Example: Mrs. G is a 54-year-old hairdresser who reports pressure over her left chest “like an elephant sitting there,” which goes into her left neck and arm. What you detect on the examination All physical examination findings Example: Mrs. G is an older white female, deconditioned, pleasant, and cooperative. BP 160/80, HR 96 and regular, respiratory rate 24, afebrile.
  sociated manifestations. These seven attributes are invaluable for under- standing all patient symptoms (see p. ___). It is also important to include “pertinent positives” and “pertinent negatives” from sections of the Review of Systems related to the Chief Complaint(s). These designate the presence or absence of symptoms relevant to the differential diagnosis, which refers to the most likely diagnoses explaining the patient’s condition. Other informa- tion is frequently relevant, such as risk factors for coronary artery disease in pa- tients with chest pain, or current medications in patients with syncope. The pre- sent illness should reveal the patient’s responses to his or her symptoms and what effect the illness has had on the patient’s life. Always remember, the data flows spontaneously from the patient, but the task of organization is yours. Medications should be noted, including name, dose, route, and frequency of use. Also list home remedies, nonprescription drugs, vitamins, mineral or herbal supplements, birth control pills, and medicines borrowed from family members or friends. It is a good idea to ask patients to bring in all of their med- ications so you can see exactly what they take. Allergies, including specific re- actions to each medication, such as rash or nausea, must be recorded, as well as allergies to foods, insects, or environmental factors. Note tobacco use, includ- ing the type used. Cigarettes are often reported in pack-years (a person who has smoked 11⁄2 packs a day for 12 years has an 18-pack-year history). If some- one has quit, note for how long. Alcohol and drug use should always be queried (see p. ___ for suggested questions). (Note that tobacco, alcohol, and drugs may also be included in the Personal and Social History; however, many clinicians find these habits pertinent to the Present Illness.) Past History Childhood illnesses, such as measles, rubella, mumps, whooping cough, chicken pox, rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, and polio are included in the Past History. Also included are any chronic childhood illnesses. You should pro- vide information relative to Adult Illnesses in each of four areas: Medical (such as diabetes, hypertension, hepatitis, asthma, HIV disease, information about hospitalizations, number and gender of partners, at-risk sexual practices); sur- gical (include dates, indications, and types of operations); Obstetric/gynecologic (relate obstetric history, menstrual history, birth control, and sexual function); and Psychiatric (include dates, diagnoses, hospitalizations, and treatments). You should also cover selected aspects of Health Maintenance, including Im- munizations, such as tetanus, pertussis, diphtheria, polio, measles, rubella, mumps, influenza, hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenza type b, and pneumo- coccal vaccines (these can usually be obtained from prior medical records), and Screening Tests, such as tuberculin tests, Pap smears, mammograms, stools for occult blood, and cholesterol tests, together with the results and the dates they were last performed. If the patient does not know this information, writ- ten permission may be needed to obtain old medical records. Family History Under Family History, outline or diagram the age and health, or age and cause of death, of each immediate relative, including parents, grandparents, sib- THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 5
  lings, children, and grandchildren. Review each of the following conditions and record if they are present or absent in the family: hypertension, coronary artery disease, elevated cholesterol levels, stroke, diabetes, thyroid or renal disease, cancer (specify type), arthritis, tuberculosis, asthma or lung disease, headache, seizure disorder, mental illness, suicide, alcohol or drug addiction, and allergies, as well as symptoms reported by the patient. Personal and Social History The Personal and Social History captures the patient’s personality and inter- ests, sources of support, coping style, strengths, and fears. It should include: occupation and the last year of schooling; home situation and significant others; sources of stress, both recent and long-term; important life experi- ences, such as military service, job history, financial situation, and retirement; leisure activities; religious affiliation and spiritual beliefs; and activities of daily living (ADLs). Baseline level of function is particularly important in older or disabled patients (see p. ___ for the ADLs frequently assessed in older patients). The Personal and Social History also conveys lifestyle habits that promote health or create risk such as exercise and diet, including fre- quency of exercise, usual daily food intake, dietary supplements or restric- tions, and use of coffee, tea, and other caffeine-containing beverages and safety measures, including use of seat belts, bicycle helmets, sunblock, smoke detectors, and other devices related to specific hazards. You may want to in- clude any alternative health care practices. You will come to thread personal and social questions throughout the inter- view to make the patient feel more at ease. Review of Systems Understanding and using Review of Systems questions is often challenging for beginning students. Think about asking series of questions going from “head to toe.” It is helpful to prepare the patient for the questions to come by saying, “The next part of the history may feel like a million questions, but they are important and I want to be thorough.” Most Review of Systems questions pertain to symptoms, but on occasion some clinicians also include diseases like pneumonia or tuberculosis. (If the patient remembers impor- tant illnesses as you ask questions within the Review of Systems, you should record or present such important illnesses as part of the Present Illness or Past History.) Start with a fairly general question as you address each of the different sys- tems. This focuses the patient’s attention and allows you to shift to more specific questions about systems that may be of concern. Examples of start- ing questions are: “How are your ears and hearing?” “How about your lungs and breathing?” “Any trouble with your heart?” “How is your digestion?” THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES 6 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  “How about your bowels?” Note that you will vary the need for additional questions depending on the patient’s age, complaints, general state of health, and your clinical judgment. The Review of Systems questions may uncover problems that the patient has overlooked, particularly in areas unrelated to the present illness. Significant health events, such as a major prior illness or a parent’s death, require full exploration. Remember that major health events should be moved to the present illness or past history in your write-up. Keep your technique flexible. Inter- viewing the patient yields a variety of information that you organize into for- mal written format only after the interview and examination are completed. Some clinicians do the Review of Systems during the physical examination, asking about the ears, for example, as they examine them. If the patient has only a few symptoms, this combination can be efficient. However, if there are multiple symptoms, the flow of both the history and the examination can be disrupted and necessary note-taking becomes awkward. Listed below is a standard series of review-of-system questions. As you gain experience, the “yes or no” questions, placed at the end of the interview, will take no more than several minutes. General. Usual weight, recent weight change, any clothes that fit more tightly or loosely than before. Weakness, fatigue, fever. Skin. Rashes, lumps, sores, itching, dryness, color change, changes in hair or nails. Head, Eyes, Ears, Nose, Throat (HEENT). Head: Headache, head in- jury, dizziness, lightheadedness. Eyes: Vision, glasses or contact lenses, last examination, pain, redness, excessive tearing, double vision, blurred vision, spots, specks, flashing lights, glaucoma, cataracts. Ears: Hearing, tinnitus, ver- tigo, earaches, infection, discharge. If hearing is decreased, use or nonuse of hearing aids. Nose and sinuses: Frequent colds, nasal stuffiness, discharge, or itching, hay fever, nosebleeds, sinus trouble. Throat (or mouth and pharynx): Condition of teeth, gums, bleeding gums, dentures, if any, and how they fit, last dental examination, sore tongue, dry mouth, frequent sore throats, hoarseness. Neck. Lumps, “swollen glands,” goiter, pain, or stiffness in the neck. Breasts. Lumps, pain or discomfort, nipple discharge, self-examination practices. Respiratory. Cough, sputum (color, quantity), hemoptysis, dyspnea, wheezing, pleurisy, last chest x-ray. You may wish to include asthma, bron- chitis, emphysema, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. Cardiovascular. Heart trouble, high blood pressure, rheumatic fever, heart murmurs, chest pain or discomfort, palpitations, dyspnea, orthopnea, THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 7
  paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, edema, past electrocardiographic or other heart test results. Gastrointestinal. Trouble swallowing, heartburn, appetite, nausea, bowel movements, color and size of stools, change in bowel habits, rectal bleeding or black or tarry stools, hemorrhoids, constipation, diarrhea. Ab- dominal pain, food intolerance, excessive belching or passing of gas. Jaundice, liver or gallbladder trouble, hepatitis. Urinary. Frequency of urination, polyuria, nocturia, urgency, burning or pain on urination, hematuria, urinary infections, kidney stones, inconti- nence; in males, reduced caliber or force of the urinary stream, hesitancy, dribbling. Genital. Male: Hernias, discharge from or sores on the penis, testicu- lar pain or masses, history of sexually transmitted diseases and their treat- ments. Sexual habits, interest, function, satisfaction, birth control methods, condom use, and problems. Exposure to HIV infection. Female: Age at menarche; regularity, frequency, and duration of periods; amount of bleed- ing, bleeding between periods or after intercourse, last menstrual period; dysmenorrhea, premenstrual tension; age at menopause, menopausal symp- toms, postmenopausal bleeding. If the patient was born before 1971, expo- sure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) from maternal use during pregnancy. Vagi- nal discharge, itching, sores, lumps, sexually transmitted diseases and treatments. Number of pregnancies, number and type of deliveries, number of abortions (spontaneous and induced); complications of pregnancy; birth control methods. Sexual preference, interest, function, satisfaction, any prob- lems, including dyspareunia. Exposure to HIV infection. Peripheral Vascular. Intermittent claudication, leg cramps, varicose veins, past clots in the veins. Musculoskeletal. Muscle or joint pains, stiffness, arthritis, gout, and backache. If present, describe location of affected joints or muscles, presence of any swelling, redness, pain, tenderness, stiffness, weakness, or limitation of motion or activity; include timing of symptoms (for example, morning or evening), duration, and any history of trauma. Neurologic. Fainting, blackouts, seizures, weakness, paralysis, numb- ness or loss of sensation, tingling or “pins and needles,” tremors or other in- voluntary movements. Hematologic. Anemia, easy bruising or bleeding, past transfusions and/or transfusion reactions. Endocrine. Thyroid trouble, heat or cold intolerance, excessive sweat- ing, excessive thirst or hunger, polyuria, change in glove or shoe size. Psychiatric. Nervousness, tension, mood, including depression, mem- ory change, suicide attempts, if relevant. THE HEALTH HISTORY: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSES 8 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  THE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: APPROACH AND OVERVIEW In this section, we outline the comprehensive physical examination and pro- vide an overview of all its components. You will conduct a comprehensive physical examination on most new patients or patients being admitted to the hospital. For more problem-oriented, or focused, assessments, the presenting complaints will dictate what segments of the examination you elect to per- form. You will find a more extended discussion of the approach to the ex- amination, its scope (comprehensive or focused), and a table summarizing the examination sequence in Chapter 3, Beginning the Physical Examination: General Survey, and Vital Signs. Information about anatomy and physiology, interview questions, techniques of examination, and important abnormali- ties are detailed in Chapters 3 through 16 for each of the segments of the physical examination described below. It is important to note that the key to a thorough and accurate physical ex- amination is developing a systematic sequence of examination. At first, you may need notes to remember what to look for as you examine each region of the body; but with a few months of practice, you will acquire a routine sequence of your own. This sequence will become habit and often prompt you to return to an exam segment you may have inadvertently skipped, help- ing you to become thorough. As you develop your own sequence of examination, an important goal is to minimize the number of times you ask the patient to change position from supine to sitting, or standing to lying supine. Some segments of the physi- cal examination are best obtained while the patient is sitting, such as exam- inations of the head and neck and of the thorax and lungs, whereas others are best obtained supine, as are the cardiovascular and abdominal examina- tions. Some suggestions for patient positioning during the different seg- ments of the examination are indicated in the right-hand column in red. Most patients view the physical examination with at least some anxiety. They feel vulnerable, physically exposed, apprehensive about possible pain, and uneasy about what the clinician may find. At the same time, they appreciate the clinician’s concern about their problems and respond to your attentive- ness. With these considerations in mind, the skillful clinician is thorough without wasting time, systematic without being rigid, gentle yet not afraid to cause discomfort should this be required. In applying the techniques of inspection, palpation, auscultation, and percussion, the skillful clinician ex- amines each region of the body, and at the same time senses the whole pa- tient, notes the wince or worried glance, and shares information that calms, explains, and reassures. For an overview of the physical examination, study the following example of the sequence of examination now. Note that clinicians vary in where they place different segments of the examination, especially the examinations of the THE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: APPROACH AND OVERVIEW C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 9
  THE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: APPROACH AND OVERVIEW 10 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G musculoskeletal system and the nervous system. Some of these options are in- dicated below. With practice, you will develop your own sequence, keeping the need for thoroughness and patient comfort in mind. After you complete your study and practice the techniques described in the regional examina- tion chapters, reread this overview to see how each segment of the exami- nation fits into an integrated whole. The Comprehensive Physical Examination General Survey. Observe the patient’s general state of health, height, build, and sexual development. Obtain the patient’s weight. Note posture, motor activity, and gait; dress, grooming, and personal hygiene; and any odors of the body or breath. Watch the patient’s facial expressions and note manner, affect, and reactions to persons and things in the environment. Lis- ten to the patient’s manner of speaking and note the state of awareness or level of consciousness. Vital Signs. Measure height and weight. Measure the blood pressure. Count the pulse and respiratory rate. If indicated, measure the body tem- perature. Skin. Observe the skin of the face and its characteristics. Identify any lesions, noting their location, distribution, arrangement, type, and color. Inspect and palpate the hair and nails. Study the patient’s hands. Continue your assessment of the skin as you examine the other body regions. Head, Eyes, Ears, Nose, Throat (HEENT). Head: Examine the hair, scalp, skull, and face. Eyes: Check visual acuity and screen the visual fields. Note the position and alignment of the eyes. Observe the eyelids and inspect the sclera and conjunctiva of each eye. With oblique lighting, inspect each cornea, iris, and lens. Compare the pupils, and test their reactions to light. Assess the extraocular movements. With an ophthalmoscope, inspect the oc- ular fundi. Ears: Inspect the auricles, canals, and drums. Check auditory acu- ity. If acuity is diminished, check lateralization (Weber test) and compare air and bone conduction (Rinne test). Nose and sinuses: Examine the external nose; using a light and a nasal speculum, inspect the nasal mucosa, septum, and turbinates. Palpate for tenderness of the frontal and maxillary sinuses. Throat (or mouth and pharynx): Inspect the lips, oral mucosa, gums, teeth, tongue, palate, tonsils, and pharynx. (You may wish to assess the cranial nerves during this portion of the examination.) Neck. Inspect and palpate the cervical lymph nodes. Note any masses or unusual pulsations in the neck. Feel for any deviation of the trachea. Ob- serve sound and effort of the patient’s breathing. Inspect and palpate the thyroid gland. Back. Inspect and palpate the spine and muscles of the back. The survey continues throughout the history and examination. The patient is sitting on the edge of the bed or examining table, unless this position is contra- indicated. You should be standing in front of the patient, moving to either side as needed. The room should be darkened for the ophthalmoscopic examination. This promotes papillary dilation and visibility of the fundi. Move behind the sitting patient to feel the thyroid gland and to examine the back, posterior thorax, and the lungs.
  Posterior Thorax and Lungs. Inspect and palpate the spine and mus- cles of the upper back. Inspect, palpate, and percuss the chest. Identify the level of diaphragmatic dullness on each side. Listen to the breath sounds; identify any adventitious (or added) sounds, and, if indicated, listen to the transmitted voice sounds (see p.___). Breasts, Axillae, and Epitrochlear Nodes. In a woman, inspect the breasts with her arms relaxed, then elevated, and then with her hands pressed on her hips. In either sex, inspect the axillae and feel for the axillary nodes. Feel for the epitrochlear nodes. A Note on the Musculoskeletal System: By this time, you have made some preliminary observations of the musculoskeletal system. You have inspected the hands, surveyed the upper back, and at least in women, made a fair es- timate of the shoulders’ range of motion. Use these and subsequent obser- vations to decide whether a full musculoskeletal examination is warranted. If indicated, with the patient still sitting, examine the hands, arms, shoulders, neck, and temporomandibular joints. Inspect and palpate the joints and check their range of motion. (You may choose to examine upper extremity muscle bulk, tone, strength, and reflexes at this time, or you may decide to wait until later.) Palpate the breasts, while at the same time continuing your inspection. Anterior Thorax and Lungs. Inspect, palpate, and percuss the chest. Listen to the breath sounds, any adventitious sounds, and, if indicated, transmitted voice sounds. Cardiovascular System. Observe the jugular venous pulsations, and measure the jugular venous pressure in relation to the sternal angle. Inspect and palpate the carotid pulsations. Listen for carotid bruits. Inspect and palpate the precordium. Note the location, diameter, amplitude, and duration of the apical impulse. Listen at the apex and the lower sternal border with the bell of a stethoscope. Listen at each auscultatory area with the diaphragm. Listen for the first and second heart sounds, and for physi- ologic splitting of the second heart sound. Listen for any abnormal heart sounds or murmurs. Abdomen. Inspect, auscultate, and percuss the abdomen. Palpate lightly, then deeply. Assess the liver and spleen by percussion and then palpation. Try to feel the kidneys, and palpate the aorta and its pulsations. If you sus- pect kidney infection, percuss posteriorly over the costovertebral angles. Lower Extremities. Examine the legs, assessing three systems while the patient is still supine. Each of these three systems can be further assessed when the patient stands. THE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: APPROACH AND OVERVIEW C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 11 The patient is still sitting. Move to the front again. The patient position is supine. Ask the patient to lie down. You should stand at the right side of the patient’s bed. Elevate the head of the bed to about 30° for the cardiovascular examination, adjusting as necessary to see the jugular venous pulsations. Ask the patient to roll partly onto the left side while you listen at the apex. Then have the patient roll back to the supine position while you listen to the rest of the heart. The patient should sit, lean forward, and exhale while you listen for the murmur of aortic regurgitation. Lower the head of the bed to the flat position. The patient should be supine. The patient is supine.
  Examination with the patient supine ■ Peripheral Vascular System. Palpate the femoral pulses, and if indicated, the popliteal pulses. Palpate the inguinal lymph nodes. Inspect for lower extremity edema, discoloration, or ulcers. Palpate for pitting edema. ■ Musculoskeletal System. Note any deformities or enlarged joints. If indi- cated, palpate the joints, check their range of motion, and perform any necessary maneuvers. ■ Nervous System. Assess lower extremity muscle bulk, tone, and strength; also sensation and reflexes. Observe any abnormal movements. Examination with the patient standing ■ Peripheral Vascular System. Inspect for varicose veins. ■ Musculoskeletal System. Examine the alignment of the spine and its range of motion, the alignment of the legs, and the feet. ■ Genitalia and Hernias in Men. Examine the penis and scrotal contents and check for hernias. ■ Nervous System. Observe the patient’s gait and ability to walk heel-to-toe, walk on the toes, walk on the heels, hop in place, and do shallow knee bends. Do a Romberg test and check for pronator drift. Nervous System. The complete examination of the nervous system can also be done at the end of the examination. It consists of the five segments described below: mental status, cranial nerves (including funduscopic ex- amination), motor system, sensory system, and reflexes. Mental Status. If indicated and not done during the interview, assess the patient’s orientation, mood, thought process, thought content, abnor- mal perceptions, insight and judgment, memory and attention, information and vocabulary, calculating abilities, abstract thinking, and constructional ability. Cranial Nerves. If not already examined, check sense of smell, strength of the temporal and masseter muscles, corneal reflexes, facial movements, gag reflex, and strength of the trapezia and sternomastoid muscles. Motor System. Muscle bulk, tone, and strength of major muscle groups. Cerebellar function: rapid alternating movements (RAMs), point-to-point movements, such as finger-to-nose (F → N) and heel-to-shin (H → S); gait. Sensory System. Pain, temperature, light touch, vibration, and dis- crimination. Compare right with left sides and distal with proximal areas on the limbs. The patient is standing. You should sit on a chair or stool. The patient is sitting or supine. THE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: APPROACH AND OVERVIEW 12 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS Now you are ready to review an actual written record documenting a patient’s history and physical findings, illustrated below using the example of “Mrs. N.” The history and physical examination form the database for your subsequent assessment(s) of the patient and your plan(s) with the patient for management and next steps. Your written record organizes the information from the his- tory and physical examination and should clearly communicate the patient’s clinical issues to all members of the health care team. You will find that fol- lowing a standardized format is often the most efficient and helpful way to transfer this information. Your written record should also facilitate clinical reasoning and communi- cate essential information to the many health professionals involved in your patient’s care. Chapter 18, Clinical Reasoning, Assessment, and Plan, will provide more comprehensive information for formulating the assessment and plan, and additional guidelines for documentation. If you are a beginner, organizing the Present Illness may be especially chal- lenging, but do not get discouraged. Considerable knowledge is needed to cluster related symptoms and physical signs. If you are unfamiliar with hyper- thyroidism, for example, it may not be apparent that muscular weakness, heat intolerance, excessive sweating, diarrhea, and weight loss, all represent a Present Illness. Until your knowledge and judgment grow, the patient’s story and the seven key attributes of a symptom (see p. ___) are helpful and necessary guides to what to include in this portion of the record. RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 13 Reflexes. Including biceps, triceps, brachioradialis, patellar, Achilles deep tendon reflexes; also plantar reflexes or Babinski reflex (see p. ___). Additional Examinations. The rectal and genital examinations are often performed at the end of the physical examination. Patient positioning is as indicated. Rectal Examination in Men. Inspect the sacrococcygeal and perianal areas. Palpate the anal canal, rectum, and prostate. If the patient cannot stand, examine the genitalia before doing the rectal examination. Genital and Rectal Examination in Women. Examine the external genitalia, vagina, and cervix. Obtain a Pap smear. Palpate the uterus and adnexa. Do a rectovaginal and rectal examination. The patient is lying on his left side for the rectal examination. The patient is supine in the lithot- omy position. You should be seated during examination with the speculum, then standing during bimanual examination of the uterus, adnexa, and rectum.
  TIPS FOR A CLEAR AND ACCURATE WRITE-UP You should write the record as soon as possible, before the data fade from your memory. At first, you will probably prefer to take notes when talking with the pa- tient. As you gain experience, however, work toward recording the Present Illness, the Past Medical History, the Family History, the Personal and Social History, and the Review of Systems in final form during the interview. Leave spaces for filling in details later. During the physical examination, make note immediately of specific measurements, such as blood pressure and heart rate. On the other hand, record- ing multiple items interrupts the flow of the examination, and you will soon learn to remember your findings and record them after you have finished. Several key features distinguish a clear and well-organized written record. Pay special attention to the order and the degree of detail as you review the record below and later when you construct your own write-ups. Remember that if hand- written, a good record is always legible! Order of the Write-Up The order should be consistent and obvious so that future readers, including yourself, can easily find specific points of information. Keep items of history in the history, for example, and do not let them stray into the physical examination. Offset your head- ings and make them clear by using indentations and spacing to accent your organiza- tion. Create emphasis by using asterisks and underlines for important points. Arrange the present illness in chronologic order, starting with the current episode and then fill- ing in the relevant background information. If a patient with long-standing diabetes is hospitalized in a coma, for example, begin with the events leading up to the coma and then summarize the past history of the patient’s diabetes. Degree of Detail The degree of detail is also a challenge. It should be pertinent to the subject or problem but not redundant. Review the record of Mrs. N, then turn to the check- list in Chapter 18 on pp. _____. Decide if you think the order and detail included meet the standards of a good medical record. The Case of Example of Mrs. N 8/30/02 Mrs. N is a pleasant, 54-year-old widowed saleswoman residing in Amarillo, Texas. Referral. None Source and Reliability. Self-referred; seems reliable. Chief Complaint: “My head aches.” Present Illness For about 3 months, Mrs. N has had increasing problems with frontal headaches. These are usually bifrontal, throbbing, and mild to moderately severe. She has missed work on several occasions due to associated nausea and vomiting. Headaches now average once a week, usually related to stress, and last 4 to 6 hours. They are relieved by sleep and putting a damp towel over the forehead. There is little relief from aspirin. No associated visual changes, motor-sensory deficits, or paresthesias. “Sick headaches” with nausea and vomiting began at age 15, recurred throughout her mid-20s, then decreased to one every 2 or 3 months and almost disappeared. RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS 14 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  The patient reports increased pressure at work from a new and demanding boss; she is also worried about her daughter (see Personal and Social History). Thinks her headaches may be like those in the past, but wants to be sure because her mother died of a stroke. She is concerned that they interfere with her work and make her irritable with her family. She eats three meals a day and drinks three cups of coffee per day; cola at night. ■ Medications. Aspirin, 1 to 2 tablets every 4 to 6 hours as needed. “Water pill” in the past for ankle swelling, none recently. ■ *Allergies. Ampicillin causes rash. ■ Tobacco. About 1 pack of cigarettes per day since age 18 (36 pack-years). ■ Alcohol/drugs. Wine on rare occasions. No illicit drugs. Past History Childhood Illnesses. Measles, chickenpox. No scarlet fever or rheumatic fever. Adult Illnesses. Medical: Pyelonephritis, 1982, with fever and right flank pain; treated with ampicillin; develop generalized rash with itching several days later. Reports kidney x-rays were normal; no recurrence of infection. Surgical: Tonsillectomy, age 6, appendectomy, age 13. Sutures for laceration, 1991, after stepping on glass. Ob/gyn: G3P3, with normal vaginal deliveries. 3 living children. Menarche age 12. Last menses 6 months ago. Little interest in sex, and not sexually active. No concerns about HIV infection. Psychiatric: None. Health Maintenance. Immunizations: Oral polio vaccine, year uncertain; tetanus shots × 2, 1991, followed with booster 1 year later; flu vaccine, 2000, no reaction. Screening tests: Last Pap smear, 1998, normal. No mammograms to date. Family History A note on recording the Family History. There are two methods of recording the Family History: a diagram or a narrative. The diagram format is more helpful than the narrative for tracing genetic disorders. The negatives from the family history should follow either format. RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 15 *Add an asterisk or underline important points. UNFIG 1-1
  RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS 16 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G or: Father died at age 43 in train accident. Mother died at age 67 of stroke; had vari- cose veins, headaches One brother, 61, with hypertension, otherwise well; one brother, 58, well except for mild arthritis; one sister, died in infancy of unknown cause Husband died at age 54 of heart attack Daughter, 33, with migraine headaches, otherwise well; son, 31, with headaches; son, 27, well No family history of diabetes, tuberculosis, heart or kidney disease, cancer, anemia, epilepsy, or mental illness. Personal and Social History Born and raised in Lake City, finished high school, married at age 19. Worked as sales clerk for 2 years, then moved with husband to Amarillo, had 3 children. Re- turned to work 15 years ago because of financial pressures. Children all married. Four years ago Mr. N died suddenly of a heart attack, leaving little savings. Mrs. N has moved to small apartment to be near daughter, Dorothy. Dorothy’s husband, Arthur, has an alcohol problem. Mrs. N’s apartment now a haven for Dorothy and her 2 children, Kevin, 6 years, and Linda, 3 years. Mrs. N feels responsible for help- ing them; feels tense and nervous but denies depression. She has friends but rarely discusses family problems: “I’d rather keep them to myself. I don’t like gos- sip.” No church or other organizational support. She is typically up at 7:00 A.M., works 9:00 to 5:30, eats dinner alone. ■ Exercise and diet. Gets little exercise. Diet high in carbohydrates. ■ Safety measures. Uses seat belt regularly. Uses sunblock. Medications kept in an unlocked medicine cabinet. Cleaning solutions in unlocked cabinet below sink. Mr. N’s shotgun and box of shells in unlocked closet upstairs. Review of Systems *General. Has gained about 10 lb in the past 4 years. Skin. No rashes or other changes. Head, Eyes, Ears, Nose, Throat (HEENT). See Present Illness. No history of head injury. Eyes: Reading glasses for 5 years, last checked 1 year ago. No symptoms. Ears: Hearing good. No tinnitus, vertigo, infections. Nose, sinuses: Occasional mild cold. No hay fever, sinus trouble. *Throat (or *mouth and pharynx): Some bleeding of gums recently. Last dental visit 2 years ago. Occasional canker sore. Neck. No lumps, goiter, pain. No swollen glands. Breasts. No lumps, pain, discharge. Does self-breast exam sporadically. Respiratory. No cough, wheezing, shortness of breath. Last chest x-ray, 1986, St. Mary’s Hospital; unremarkable. Cardiovascular. No known heart disease or high blood pressure; last blood pressure taken in 1998. No dyspnea, orthopnea, chest pain, palpitations. Has never had an electrocardiogram (ECG). *Gastrointestinal. Appetite good; no nausea, vomiting, indigestion. Bowel movement about once daily, though sometimes has hard stools for 2 to 3 days when especially tense; no diarrhea or bleeding. No pain, jaundice, gallbladder or liver problems. *Urinary. No frequency, dysuria, hematuria, or recent flank pain; nocturia × 1, large volume. Occasionally loses some urine when coughs hard.
  Genital. No vaginal or pelvic infections. No dyspareunia. Peripheral Vascular. Varicose veins appeared in both legs during first pregnancy. For 10 years, has had swollen ankles after prolonged standing; wears light elastic pantyhose; tried “water pill” 5 months ago, but it didn’t help much; no history of phlebitis or leg pain. Musculoskeletal. Mild, aching, low-back pain, often after a long day’s work; no ra- diation down the legs; used to do back exercises but not now. No other joint pain. Neurologic. No fainting, seizures, motor or sensory loss. Memory good. Hematologic. Except for bleeding gums, no easy bleeding. No anemia. Endocrine. No known thyroid trouble, temperature intolerance. Sweating aver- age. No symptoms or history of diabetes. Psychiatric. No history of depression or treatment for psychiatric disorders. See also Present Illness and Personal and Social History. Physical Examination Mrs. N is a short, moderately obese, middle-aged woman, who is animated and re- sponds quickly to questions. She is somewhat tense, with moist, cold hands. Her hair is fixed neatly and her clothes are immaculate. Her color is good and she lies flat without discomfort. Vital Signs. Ht (without shoes) 157 cm (5′2″). Wt (dressed) 65 kg (143 lb). BP 164/98 right arm, supine; 160/96 left arm, supine; 152/88 right arm, supine with wide cuff. Heart rate (HR) 88 and regular. Respiratory rate (RR) 18. Temperature (oral) 98.6°F. Skin. Palms cold and moist, but color good. Scattered cherry angiomas over upper trunk. Nails without clubbing, cyanosis. Head, Eyes, Ears, Nose, Throat (HEENT). Head: Hair of average texture. Scalp with- out lesions, normocephalic/atraumatic (NC/AT). Eyes: Vision 20/30 in each eye. Visual fields full by confrontation. Conjunctiva pink; sclera white. Pupils 4 mm constricting to 2 mm, round, regular, equally, reactive to light. Extraocular movements intact. Disc margins sharp, without hemorrhages, exudates. No arteriolar narrowing or A- V nicking. Ears: Wax partially obscures right tympanic membrane (TM); left canal clear, TM with good cone of light. Acuity good to whispered voice. Weber midline. AC > BC. Nose: Mucosa pink, septum midline. No sinus tenderness. Mouth: Oral mucosa pink. Several interdental papillae red, slightly swollen. Dentition good. Tongue midline, with 3 × 4 mm shallow white ulcer on red base on undersurface near tip; tender but not indurated. Tonsils absent. Pharynx without exudates. Neck. Neck supple. Trachea midline. Thyroid isthmus barely palpable, lobes not felt. Lymph Nodes. Small (<1 cm), soft, nontender, and mobile tonsillar and posterior cervical nodes bilaterally. No axillary or epitrochlear nodes. Several small inguinal nodes bilaterally, soft and nontender. Thorax and Lungs. Thorax symmetric with good excursion. Lungs resonant. Breath sounds vesicular with no added sounds. Diaphragms descend 4 cm bilaterally. Cardiovascular. Jugular venous pressure 1 cm above the sternal angle, with head of examining table raised to 30°. Carotid upstrokes brisk, without bruits. Apical impulse discrete and tapping, barely palpable in the 5th left interspace, RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 17
  RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS 18 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 8 cm lateral to the midsternal line. Good S1, S2; no S3 or S4. A II/VI medium-pitched midsystolic murmur at the 2nd right interspace; does not radiate to the neck. No di- astolic murmurs. Breasts. Pendulous, symmetric. No masses; nipples without discharge. Abdomen. Obese. Well-healed scar, right lower quadrant. Bowel sounds active. No tenderness or masses. Liver span 7 cm in right midclavicular line; edge smooth, palpable 1 cm below right costal margin (RCM). Spleen and kidneys not felt. No costovertebral angle tenderness (CVAT). Genitalia. External genitalia without lesions. Mild cystocele at introitus on straining. Vaginal mucosa pink. Cervix pink, parous, and without discharge. Uterus anterior, midline, smooth, not enlarged. Adnexa not palpated due to obesity and poor relaxation. No cervical or adnexal tenderness. Pap smear taken. Rectovaginal wall intact. Rectal. Rectal vault without masses. Stool brown, negative for occult blood. Extremities. Warm and without edema. Calves supple, nontender. Peripheral Vascular. Trace edema at both ankles. Moderate varicosities of saphenous veins both lower extremities. No stasis pigmentation or ulcers. Pulses (2 + = brisk, or normal): Musculoskeletal. No joint deformities. Good range of motion in hands, wrists, elbows, shoulders, spine, hips, knees, ankles. Neurologic. Mental Status: Tense but alert and cooperative. Thought coherent. Oriented to person, place, and time. Cranial Nerves. II–XII intact. Motor: Good muscle bulk and tone. Strength 5/5 throughout (see p. ___ for grading system). Rapid alternating movements (RAMs), point-to-point movements intact. Gait stable, fluid. Sensory: Pinprick, light touch, position sense, vibration, and stereog- nosis intact. Romberg negative. Reflexes: Two methods of recording may be used, depending upon personal preference: a tabular form or a stick picture diagram, as shown below and at right. 2+ = brisk, or normal; see p. ___ for grading system. Radial Femoral Popliteal Dorsalis Pedis Posterior Tibial RT 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ LT 2+ 2+ 2+ Absent 2+ Biceps Triceps Brachi Aborad Patellar Achilles Plantar RT 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+/2+ 2+ 1+ ↓ LT 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+/2+ 1+ ↓ UNFIG 1-2
  RECORDING YOUR FINDINGS C H A P T E R 1 ■ A N O V E R V I E W O F P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G 19 Learning History Taking and Physical Examination Now that you have surveyed the tasks ahead, the overviews of the health his- tory and physical examination, and the patient record of Mrs. N, you are ready to turn to the chapters on history taking and physical examination. Chapter 18, Clinical Reasoning, Assessment, and Plan, provides more com- prehensive information on how to formulate your Assessment and Plan, the final steps of patient assessment, and the remaining two sections of the writ- ten record. In Chapter 18 you will also find guidelines for documentation and the assessment and plan for Mrs. N. The rewards of mastering the skills of patient assessment lie just ahead!
  Interviewing and the Health History C H A P T E R 2 C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 21 The health history interview is a conversation with a purpose. As a clinician, you will draw on many of the interpersonal skills that you use every day, but with unique and important differences. Unlike social conversation, in which you express your own needs and interests with responsibility only for yourself, the primary goal of the clinician–patient interview is to improve the well-being of the patient. At its most basic level, the purpose of conversation with a pa- tient is threefold: to establish a trusting and supportive relationship, to gather information, and to offer information. Communicating and relating thera- peutically with patients are the most valued skills of clinical care. As a begin- ning clinician, you will focus your energies on gathering information. At the same time, by using techniques that promote trust and communication, you will allow the patient’s story to unfold in its most full and detailed form. Es- tablishing a supportive interaction enhances information-gathering and itself becomes part of the therapeutic process of patient care. As a clinician facilitating the patient’s story, you will come to generate a series of hypotheses about the nature of the patient’s concerns. You will then test these various hypotheses by asking for more detailed information. You will also explore the patient’s feelings and beliefs about his or her problem. Even- tually, as your clinical experience grows, you will respond with your under- standing of the patient’s concerns. Even if you discover that little can be done for the patient’s disease, discussing the patient’s experience of being ill can be therapeutic. In the example that follows, a research protocol made the patient ineligible for treatment of her long-standing and severe arthritis. The patient had never talked about what the symptoms meant to her. She had never said “This means that I can’t go to the bathroom by myself, put my clothes on, even get out of bed without calling for help.” When we finished the physical examination, I said something like “Rheumatoid arthritis really has not been nice to you.” She burst into tears, and so did her daughter, and I sat there, very close to losing it myself. She said “You know, no one has ever talked about it as a personal thing before. No one’s ever talked to me as if this were a thing that mattered, a personal event.” That was the significant thing about the encounter. I didn’t really have much else to offer . . . But something really significant had happened between us, something that she valued and would carry away with her.1 1Hastings C: The lived experiences of the illness: Making contact with the patient. In Benne P, Wrubel J. The Primacy of Caring: Stress and Coping in Health and Illness. Menlo Park, CA, Addison-Wesley, 1989.
  As you can see from this story, interviewing patients consists of much more than just asking a series of questions. You will find that the interviewing process differs significantly from the for- mat for the health history presented in Chapter 1. Both are fundamental to your work with patients, but each serves a different purpose. The health his- tory format is a structured framework for organizing patient information in written or verbal form: it focuses the clinician’s attention on specific pieces of information that must be obtained from the patient. The interviewing process that actually generates these pieces of information is more fluid. It requires knowledge of the information you need to obtain, the ability to elicit accu- rate and detailed information, and interpersonal skills that allow you to re- spond to the patient’s feelings. As you learned in Chapter 1, the kinds of questions you ask as you elicit the health history vary according to several factors. The scope and degree of detail depend on the patient’s needs and concerns, the clinician’s goals for the en- counter, and the clinical setting (e.g., inpatient or outpatient, amount of time available, primary care or subspecialty). For new patients, regardless of the set- ting, you will do a comprehensive health history, described for adults in Chap- ter 1. For other patients who seek care for a specific complaint, such as a cough or painful urination, a more limited interview tailored to that specific problem may be indicated, sometimes known as a problem-oriented history. In a primary care setting, clinicians frequently choose to address issues of health promo- tion, such as tobacco cessation or reduction of high-risk sexual behaviors. A subspecialist may do an in-depth history to evaluate one problem that incor- porates a wide range of areas of inquiry. Knowing the content and relevance of all the components of a comprehensive health history, reviewed for you below, enables you to select the kinds of information that will be most help- ful for meeting both clinician and patient goals. 22 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G THE FORMAT OF THE COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH HISTORY Identifying Data Source and Reliability of History Chief Complaint History of Present Illness Medications, Allergies, Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Past History Childhood Illness Adult Illness: Medical, Surgical, Ob/Gyn, Psychiatric, Health Maintenance Family History Personal and Social History Review of Systems This chapter introduces you to the essential skills of interviewing for gather- ing the health history—skills that you will continually use and refine through- out your career. You will learn the guiding principles for how clinicians talk
  with patients and forge trusting relationships with them. You will read about preparing for the interview, the sequence of the interviewing process, impor- tant interviewing techniques, and strategies for addressing a variety of chal- lenges that frequently arise in encounters with patients. Getting Ready: The Approach to the Interview Interviewing patients to obtain a health history requires planning. You are un- doubtedly eager to begin your relationship with the patient, but you should first consider several points that are crucial to success. Taking Time for Self-Reflection. As clinicians, we encounter a wide variety of people, each one of whom is unique. Establishing relationships with individuals from a broad spectrum of ages, social classes, races, ethnic- ities, and states of health or illness is an uncommon opportunity and privi- lege. Being consistently open and respectful toward individual differences is one of the clinician’s challenges. Because we bring our own values, assump- tions, and biases to every encounter, we must look inward to clarify how our own expectations and reactions may affect what we hear and how we behave. Self-reflection is a continual part of professional development in clinical work. It brings a deepening personal awareness to our work with patients and is one of the most rewarding aspects of providing patient care. Reviewing the Chart. Before seeing the patient, review his or her med- ical record, or chart. The purpose of reviewing the chart is partly to gather in- formation and partly to develop ideas about what to explore with the patient. Look closely at the identifying data (age, gender, address, health insurance), the problem list, the medication list, and other details, such as the documen- tation of allergies. The chart often provides valuable information about past diagnoses and treatments; however, you should not let the chart prevent you from developing new approaches or ideas. Remember that information in the chart comes from different observers, and that standardized forms reflect dif- ferent institutional norms. Moreover, the chart often fails to capture the essence of the person you are about to meet. Data may be incomplete or even disagree with what you learn from the patient—understanding such discrep- ancies may prove helpful to the patient’s care. Setting Goals for the Interview. Before you begin talking with a pa- tient, it is important to clarify your goals for the interview. As a student, your goal may be to obtain a complete health history so that you can submit a write- up to your teacher. As a clinician, your goals can range from completing forms needed by the health care facility or insurance companies to testing hypotheses generated by your review of the chart. A clinician must balance these provider-centered goals with patient-centered goals. There can be ten- sion between the needs of the provider, the institution, and the patient and family. Part of the clinician’s task is to consider these multiple agendas. By taking a few minutes to think through your goals ahead of time, you will find it easier to strike a healthy balance among the various purposes of the inter- view to come. GETTING REASY: THE APPROACH TO THE INTERVIEW C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 23
  Reviewing Clinician Behavior and Appearance. Just as you observe the patient throughout the interview, the patient will be watching you. Consciously or not, you send messages through both your words and your behavior. Be sensitive to those messages and manage them as well as you can. Posture, gestures, eye contact, and tone of voice can all express interest, at- tention, acceptance, and understanding. The skilled interviewer seems calm and unhurried, even when time is limited. Reactions that betray disapproval, embarrassment, impatience, or boredom block communication, as do behav- iors that condescend, stereotype, criticize, or belittle the patient. Although these types of negative feelings are unavoidable at times, you must take pains not to express them. Guard against them not only when talking to patients but also when discussing patients with your colleagues. Your personal appearance can also affect your clinical relationships. Patients find cleanliness, neatness, conservative dress, and a name tag reassuring. Try to consider the patient’s perspective. Remember that you want the patient to trust you. Improving the Environment. Try to make the setting as private and comfortable as possible. Although you may have to talk with the patient under difficult circumstances, such as a two-bed room or the corridor of a busy emergency department, a proper environment improves communica- tion. If there are privacy curtains, ask permission to pull them shut. Suggest moving to an empty room rather than having a conversation in a waiting area. As the clinician, part of your job is to make adjustments to the location and seat- ing that make the patient and you more comfortable. Doing so is always worth the time. Taking Notes. As a novice you will need to write down much of what you learn during the interview. Even though experienced clinicians seem to re- member a great deal of the interview without taking notes, no one can re- member all the details of a comprehensive history. Jot down short phrases, specific dates, or words rather than trying to put them into a final format. Do not, however, let note-taking or using written forms distract you from the pa- tient. Maintain good eye contact, and whenever the patient is talking about sensitive or disturbing material, put down your pen. Most patients are accus- tomed to note-taking, but for those who find it uncomfortable, explore their concerns and explain your need to create an accurate record. Learning About the Patient: The Process of Interviewing Once you have devoted time and thought to preparing for the interview, you are fully ready to listen to the patient, elicit the patient’s concerns, and learn about the patient’s health. In general, an interview moves through several stages. Throughout this sequence, you, as the clinician, must always be attuned to the patient’s feelings, help the patient express them, respond to their content, and validate their significance. A typical sequence follows. LEARNING ABOUT THE PATIENT: THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING 24 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  As a student, you will concentrate primarily on gathering the patient’s story and creating a shared understanding of the problem. As you become a prac- ticing clinician, negotiating a plan for further evaluation and treatment will become more important. Whether the interview is comprehensive or focused, you should move through this sequence while closely attending to the pa- tient’s feelings and affect. Greeting the Patient and Establishing Rapport. The initial mo- ments of your encounter with the patient lay the foundation for your on- going relationship. How you greet the patient and other visitors in the room, provide for the patient’s comfort, and arrange the physical setting all shape the patient’s first impressions. As you begin, greet the patient by name and introduce yourself, giving your own name. If possible, shake hands with the patient. If this is the first contact, explain your role, including your status as a student and how you will be in- volved in the patient’s care. Repeat this part of the introduction on subsequent meetings until you are confident that the patient knows who you are. “Good morning, Mr. Peters. I’m Susan Jones, a 3rd-year medical student. You may remember me. I was here yesterday talking with you about your heart prob- lems. I’m part of the medical team that’s taking care of you.” Using a title to address the patient (e.g., Mr. O’Neil, Ms. Washington) is al- ways best. Except with children or adolescents, avoid first names unless you have specific permission from the patient or family. Addressing an unfamiliar adult as “granny” or “dear” tends to depersonalize and demean. If you are un- sure how to pronounce the patient’s name, don’t be afraid to ask. You can say “I’m afraid of mispronouncing your name. Could you say it for me?” Then repeat it to make sure that you heard it correctly. When visitors are in the room, be sure to acknowledge and greet each one in turn, inquiring about each person’s name and relationship to the patient. Whenever visitors are present, it is important for you to maintain confiden- tiality. Let the patient decide if visitors or family members should remain in the room, and ask for the patient’s permission before conducting the inter- view in front of them. For example, “I’m comfortable with having your sister stay for the interview, Mrs. Jones, but I want to make sure that this is also what LEARNING ABOUT THE PATIENT: THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 25 THE SEQUENCE OF THE INTERVIEW ■ Greeting the patient and establishing rapport ■ Inviting the patient’s story ■ Establishing the agenda for the interview ■ Expanding and clarifying the patient’s story; generating and testing diagnostic hypotheses ■ Creating a shared understanding of the problem(s) ■ Negotiating a plan (includes further evaluation, treatment, and patient education) ■ Planning for follow-up and closing the interview.
  you want” or “Would you prefer if I spoke to you alone or with your sister present?” It is important to be attuned to the patient’s comfort. In the office or clinic, be sure there is a suitable place other than the patient’s lap for coats and belong- ings. In the hospital, after greeting the patient, ask how the patient is feeling and if you are coming at a convenient time. Look for signs of discomfort, such as frequent changes of position or facial expressions that show pain or anxiety. Arranging the bed to make the patient more comfortable or allowing a few minutes for the patient to say goodbye to visitors or finish using the bedpan may be the shortest route to a good history. Consider the best way to arrange the room and how far you should be from the patient. Remember that cultural background and individual taste influence preferences about interpersonal space. Choose a distance that facilitates con- versation and good eye contact. You should probably be within several feet, close enough to be intimate but not intrusive. Pull up a chair and, if possible, try to sit at eye level with the patient. Move any physical barriers between you and the patient, such as desks or bedside tables, out of the way. In an outpa- tient setting, sitting on a rolling stool, for example, allows you to change dis- tances in response to patient cues. Avoid arrangements that connote disrespect or inequality of power, such as interviewing a woman already positioned for a pelvic examination. Such arrangements are unacceptable. Lighting also makes a difference. If you sit between a patient and a bright light or window, al- though your view might be fine, the patient may have to squint uncomfort- ably to see you, making the interaction more like an interrogation than a supportive interview. Give the patient your undivided attention. Try not to look down to take notes or read the chart, and spend enough time on small talk to put the patient at ease. Inviting the Patient’s Story. Now that you have established rapport, you are ready to pursue the patient’s reason for seeking health care, or chief complaint. Begin with open-ended questions that allow full freedom of re- sponse. “What concerns bring you here today?” or “How can I help you?” Note that these questions encourage the patient to express any possible con- cerns and do not restrict the patient to a limited and minimally informative “yes” or “no” answer. Listen to the patient’s answers without interrupting. After you have given the patient the opportunity to respond fully, inquire again or even several times, “Anything else?” You may need to lead the patient back several times to additional concerns or issues he or she may want to tell you about. Some patients may want only a blood pressure check or routine examination, without having a specific complaint or problem. Others may say they just want a physical examination but feel uncomfortable bringing up an underlying con- cern. In all these situations, it is still important to start with the patient’s story. Helpful open-ended questions are “Was there a specific health concern that prompted you to schedule this appointment?” and “What made you decide to come in for health care now?” LEARNING ABOUT THE PATIENT: THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING 26 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  It is important to train yourself to follow the patient’s leads. Good interviewing techniques include using verbal and nonverbal cues that prompt patients to recount their stories spontaneously. If you intervene too early and ask specific questions prematurely, you risk trampling on the very information you are seeking. Your role, however, is far from passive. You should listen actively and make use of continuers, especially at the outset. Examples include nodding your head and using phrases such as “uh huh,” “go on,” and “I see.” Addi- tional facilitative techniques (p. ___) help keep you from missing any of the patient’s concerns. Establishing the Agenda for the Interview. The clinician often ap- proaches the interview with specific goals in mind. The patient also has spe- cific questions and concerns. It is important to identify all these issues at the beginning of the encounter. Doing so allows you to use the time available ef- fectively and to make sure that you address all the patient’s issues. As a student, you may have enough time to cover the breadth of both your concerns and the patient’s in one visit. For a clinician, however, time management is almost always an issue. As a clinician, you may need to focus the interview by asking the patient which problem is most pressing. For example, “You have told me about several different problems that are important for us to discuss. I also wanted to review your blood pressure medication. We need to decide which problems to address today. Can you tell me which one you are most concerned about?” Then you can proceed with questions such as, “Tell me about that problem.” Once you have agreed upon a manageable list, stating that the other problems are also important and will be addressed during a future visit gives the patient confidence in your ongoing collaboration. Expanding and Clarifying the Health History (the Patient’s Perspective). You can then guide the patient into elaborating areas of the health history that seem most significant. For the clinician, each symptom has attributes that must be clarified, including context, associations, and chronol- ogy, especially for complaints of pain. For all symptoms, it is critical to fully understand their essential characteristics. Always pursue the following elements. LEARNING ABOUT THE PATIENT: THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 27 THE SEVEN ATTRIBUTES OF A SYMPTOM 1. Location. Where is it? Does it radiate? 2. Quality. What is it like? 3. Quantity or severity. How bad is it? (For pain, ask for a rating on a scale of 1 to 10.) 4. Timing. When did (does) it start? How long did (does) it last? How often did (does) it come? 5. Setting in which it occurs. Include environmental factors, personal activities, emotional reactions, or other circumstances that may have contributed to the illness. 6. Remitting or exacerbating factors. Does anything make it better or worse? 7. Associated manifestations. Have you noticed anything else that accompanies it? As you explore these attributes, be sure that you use language that is under- standable and appropriate to the patient. Although you might ask a trained
  health professional about “dyspnea,” the customary term to use for patients is “shortness of breath.” It is easy to slip into using medical language with pa- tients, but beware. Technical language confuses the patient and often blocks communication. Appropriate questions about symptoms are suggested in each of the chapters on the regional physical examinations. Whenever possible, however, use the patient’s words, making sure you clarify their meaning. To fill in specific details, learn to facilitate the patient’s story by using differ- ent types of questions and the techniques of skilled interviewing described on pp. ___–___. Often you will need to use directed questions (see p. ___) that ask for specific information the patient has not already offered. In general, an in- terview moves back and forth from an open-ended question to a directed question and then on to another open-ended question. Establishing the sequence and time course of the patient’s symptoms is im- portant. You can encourage a chronologic account by asking such questions as “What then?” or “What happened next?” Generating and Testing Diagnostic Hypotheses (the Clinician’s Perspective). As you listen to the patient’s concerns, you will begin to generate and test diagnostic hypotheses about what disease process might be the cause. Identifying the various attributes of the patient’s symptoms and pursuing specific details are fundamental to recognizing patterns of disease and differentiating one disease from another. As you learn more about diag- nostic patterns, listening for and asking about these attributes will become more automatic. For additional data that will contribute to your analysis, use items from relevant sections of the Review of Systems. In these ways you build evidence for and against the various diagnostic possibilities. This kind of clin- ical thinking is illustrated by the tables on symptoms found in the regional examination chapters and further discussed in Chapter 18, Clinical Reason- ing, Assessment, and Plan. Creating a Shared Understanding of the Problem. Recent litera- ture makes clear that delivering effective health care requires exploring the deeper meanings patients attach to their symptoms. While the “seven attri- butes of a symptom” add important details to the patient’s history, the dis- ease/illness distinction model helps you understand the full range of what every good interview needs to cover. This model acknowledges the dual but very different perspectives of the clinician and the patient. Disease is the explana- tion that the clinician brings to the symptoms. It is the way that the clinician organizes what he or she learns from the patient into a coherent picture that leads to a clinical diagnosis and treatment plan. Illness can be defined as how the patient experiences symptoms. Many factors may shape this experience, including prior personal or family health, the effect of symptoms on everyday life, individual outlook and style of coping, and expectations about medical care. The health history interview needs to take into account both of these views of reality. Even a chief complaint as straightforward as sore throat can illustrate these di- vergent views. The patient may be most concerned about pain and difficulty swallowing, a cousin who was hospitalized with tonsillitis, or missing time LEARNING ABOUT THE PATIENT: THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING 28 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  from work. The clinician, however, may focus on specific points in the history that differentiate streptococcal pharyngitis from other etiologies or on a ques- tionable history of allergy to penicillin. To understand the patient’s expecta- tions, the clinician needs to go beyond just the attributes of a symptom. Learn- ing about the patient’s perception of illness means asking patient-centered questions in the six domains listed below. Doing so is crucial to patient satis- faction, effective health care, and patient follow-through. LEARNING ABOUT THE PATIENT: THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 29 EXPLORING THE PATIENT’S PERSPECTIVE ■ The patient’s thoughts about the nature and the cause of the problem ■ The patient’s feelings, especially fears, about the problem ■ The patient’s expectations of the clinician and health care ■ The effect of the problem on the patient’s life ■ Prior personal or family experiences that are similar ■ Therapeutic responses the patient has already tried The clinician should ask about the cause of the problem by saying, for exam- ple, “Why do you think you have this stomachache?” To uncover the patient’s feelings, you might ask, “What concerns you most about the pain?” A patient may worry that the pain is a symptom of serious disease and want reassurance. Alternatively, the patient may be less concerned about the cause of the pain and just want relief. You need to find out what the patient expects from you, the clinician, or from health care in general . . . “I’m glad that the pain is al- most gone. How specifically can I help you now?” Even if the stomach pain is almost gone, the patient may need a work excuse to take to an employer. It may be helpful to ask the patient about previous experiences, what he or she has tried so far, and any related changes in daily activities. Clinician: “Has anything like this happened to you or your family before?” Patient: “I was worried that I might have appendicitis. My Uncle Charlie died from a ruptured appendix.” Explore what the patient has done so far to take care of the problem. Most pa- tients will have tried over-the-counter medications, traditional remedies, or advice from friends or family. Ask how the illness has affected the patient’s lifestyle and level of activity. This question is especially important for a patients with chronic illness. “What can’t you do now that you could do before?” “How has your backache (shortness of breath, etc.) affected your ability to work?” . . . “Your life at home?” . . . “Your social activities?” . . . “Your role as a parent?” . . . “Your role as a husband or wife?” . . . “The way you feel about yourself as a person?” Negotiating a Plan. Learning about the disease and conceptualizing the illness give you and the patient the opportunity to create a complete picture of the problem. This multifaceted picture then forms the basis for planning further evaluation (physical examination, laboratory tests, consultations, etc.)
  and negotiating a treatment plan. More specific techniques for negotiating a plan can be found in Chapter 18. Advanced skills, such as steps for motivat- ing change and the therapeutic use of the clinician–patient relationship, are beyond the scope of this book. Planning for Follow-Up and Closing. You may find that ending the interview is difficult. Patients often have many questions and, if you have done your job well, they are enjoying talking with you. Giving notice that the end of the interview is approaching allows time for the patient to ask any final ques- tions. Make sure the patient understands the agreed-upon plans you have de- veloped. For example, before gathering your papers or standing to leave the room, you can say “We need to stop now. Do you have any questions about what we’ve covered?” As you close, reviewing future evaluation, treatments, and follow-up is helpful. “So, you will take the medicine as we discussed, get the blood test before you leave today, and make a follow-up appointment for 4 weeks. Do you have any questions about this?” Address any related concerns or questions that the patient brings up. The patient should have a chance to ask any final questions; however, the last few minutes are not the time to bring up new topics. If that happens (and the concern is not life-threatening), simply reassure the patient of your interest and make plans to address the problem at a future time. “That knee pain sounds concerning. Why don’t you make an appointment for next week so we can discuss it?” Reaffirming that you will continue working to improve the patient’s health is always appreciated. Facilitating the Patient’s Story: The Techniques of Skilled Interviewing Skilled interviewing requires the use of specific learnable techniques. You need to practice these techniques and find ways to be observed or recorded so that you can receive feedback on your progress. Several of these fundamental skills are listed in the following box and described in more detail throughout this section. FACILITATING THE PATIENT’S STORY: THE TECHNIQUES OF SKILLED INTERVIEWING 30 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G THE TECHNIQUES OF SKILLED INTERVIEWING ■ Active listening ■ Adaptive questioning ■ Nonverbal communication ■ Facilitation ■ Echoing ■ Empathic responses ■ Validation ■ Reassurance ■ Summarization ■ Highlighting transitions
  Active Listening. Underlying all these specific techniques is the practice of active listening. Active listening is the process of fully attending to what the patient is communicating, being aware of the patient’s emotional state, and using verbal and nonverbal skills to encourage the speaker to continue and ex- pand. Active listening takes practice. It is easy to drift into thinking about your next question or the differential diagnosis; however, you and the patient are best served by your concentration on listening. Adaptive Questioning. There are several ways you can ask questions that add detail to the patient’s story yet facilitate the flow of the interview. Learn to adapt your questioning to the patient’s verbal and nonverbal cues. FACILITATING THE PATIENT’S STORY: THE TECHNIQUES OF SKILLED INTERVIEWING C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 31 ADAPTIVE QUESTIONING: OPTIONS FOR CLARIFYING THE PATIENT’S STORY ■ Directed questioning—from general to specific ■ Questioning to elicit a graded response ■ Asking a series of questions, one at a time ■ Offering multiple choices for answers ■ Clarifying what the patient means Directed questioning is useful for drawing the patient’s attention to specific areas of the history. It should follow several principles to be effective. Directed questioning should proceed from the general to the specific. A possible sequence, for example, might be “Tell me about your chest pain?” (Pause) “What else?” (Pause) “Where did you feel it?” (Pause) “Show me. Anywhere else?” (Pause) “Did it travel anywhere?” (Pause) “To which arm?” Directed questions should not be leading questions that call for a “yes” or “no” answer. If a patient says yes to “Did your stools look like tar?” you run the risk of turning your words into the patient’s words. A better phrasing is “Please describe your stools.” If necessary, ask questions that require a graded response rather than a single answer. “What physical activity do you do that makes you short of breath?” is better than “How many steps can you climb before you get short of breath?” which is better than “Do you get short of breath climbing stairs?” Be sure to ask one question at a time. “Any tuberculosis, pleurisy, asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia?” may lead to a negative answer out of sheer confusion. Try “Do you have any of the following problems?” Be sure to pause and establish eye contact as you list each problem. Sometimes patients seem quite unable to describe their symptoms without help. To minimize bias, offer multiple-choice answers. “Is your pain aching, sharp, pressing, burning, shooting, or what?” Almost any direct question can provide at least two possible answers. “Do you bring up any phlegm with your cough, or is it dry?” At times patients use words that are ambiguous or have unclear associations. To understand their meaning, you need to request clarification, as in “Tell me exactly what you meant by ‘the flu’” or “You said you were behaving just like your mother. What did you mean?”
  Nonverbal Communication. Communication that does not involve speech occurs continuously and provides important clues to feelings and emo- tions. Becoming more sensitive to nonverbal messages allows you to both “read the patient” more effectively and to send messages of your own. Pay close at- tention to eye contact, facial expression, posture, head position and movement such as shaking or nodding, interpersonal distance, and placement of the arms or legs, such as crossed, neutral, or open. Matching your position to the pa- tient’s can be a sign of increasing rapport. Moving closer or engaging in phys- ical contact (like placing your hand on the patient’s arm) can convey empathy or help the patient gain control of feelings. Bringing nonverbal communica- tion to the conscious level is the first step to using this crucial form of patient interaction. You also can mirror the patient’s paralanguage, or qualities of speech such as pacing, tone, and volume, to increase rapport. Facilitation. You use facilitation when, by posture, actions, or words, you encourage the patient to say more but do not specify the topic. Pausing with a nod of the head or remaining silent, yet attentive and relaxed, is a cue for the patient to continue. Leaning forward, making eye contact, and using contin- uers like “Mm-hmm,” “Go on,” or “I’m listening” all maintain the flow of the patient’s story. Echoing. Simple repetition of the patient’s words encourages the patient to express both factual details and feelings, as in the following example: Patient: The pain got worse and began to spread. (Pause) Response: Spread? (Pause) Patient: Yes, it went to my shoulder and down my left arm to the fingers. It was so bad that I thought I was going to die. (Pause) Response: Going to die? Patient: Yes, it was just like the pain my father had when he had his heart attack, and I was afraid the same thing was happening to me. This reflective technique has helped to reveal not only the location and severity of the pain but also its meaning to the patient. It did not bias the story or interrupt the patient’s train of thought. Empathic Responses. Conveying empathy is part of establishing and strengthening rapport with patients. As patients talk with you, they may express—with or without words—feelings they have not consciously acknowl- edged. These feelings are crucial to understanding their illnesses and to estab- lishing a trusting relationship. To empathize with your patient you must first identify his or her feelings. When you sense important but unexpressed feel- ings from the patient’s face, voice, words, or behavior, inquire about them rather than assume how the patient feels. You may simply ask “How did you feel about that?” Unless you let patients know that you are interested in feel- ings as well as in facts, you may miss important insights. FACILITATING THE PATIENT’S STORY: THE TECHNIQUES OF SKILLED INTERVIEWING 32 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  Once you have identified the feelings, respond with understanding and ac- ceptance. Responses may be as simple as “I understand,” “That sounds up- setting,” or “You seem sad.” Empathy may also be nonverbal—for example, offering a tissue to a crying patient or gently placing your hand on the pa- tient’s arm to show understanding. When you give an empathic response, be sure that you are responding correctly to what the patient is feeling. If your response acknowledges how upset a patient must have been at the death of a parent, when, in fact, the death relieved the patient of a long-standing finan- cial and emotional burden, you have misunderstood the situation. Validation. Another important way to make a patient feel accepted is to legitimize or validate his or her emotional experience. A patient who has been in a car accident but has no significant physical injury may still be experienc- ing distress. Stating something like “Being in that accident must have been very scary. Car accidents are always unsettling because they remind us of our vulnerability and mortality. That could explain why you still feel upset” reas- sures the patient. It helps the patient feel that such emotions are legitimate and understandable. Reassurance. When you are talking with patients who are anxious or upset, it is tempting to reassure them. You may find yourself saying “Don’t worry. Everything is going to be all right.” While this may be appropriate in non- professional relationships, in your role as a clinician such comments are usually counterproductive. You may fall into reassuring the patient about the wrong thing. Moreover, premature reassurance may block further disclosures, espe- cially if the patient feels that exposing anxiety is a weakness. Such admissions require encouragement, not a cover-up. The first step to effective reassurance is identifying and accepting the patient’s feelings without offering reassurance at that moment. Doing so promotes a feeling of security. The actual reassurance comes much later after you have completed the interview, the physical exam- ination, and perhaps some laboratory studies. At that point, you can interpret for the patient what you think is happening and deal openly with the real concerns. Summarization. Giving a capsule summary of the patient’s story in the course of the interview can serve several different functions. It indicates to the patient that you have been listening carefully. It can also identify what you know and what you don’t know. “Now, let me make sure that I have the full story. You said you’ve had a cough for 3 days, it’s especially bad at night, and you have started to bring up yellow phlegm. You have not had a fever or felt short of breath, but you do feel congested, with difficulty breathing through your nose.” Following with an attentive pause or “Anything else?” lets the pa- tient add other information and confirms that you have heard the story cor- rectly. You can use summarization at different points in the interview to struc- ture the visit, especially at times of transition (see below). This technique also allows you, the clinician, to organize your clinical reasoning and to convey your thinking to the patient, which makes the relationship more collaborative. Highlighting Transitions. Patients have many reasons to feel worried and vulnerable. To put them more at ease, tell them when you are changing FACILITATING THE PATIENT’S STORY: THE TECHNIQUES OF SKILLED INTERVIEWING C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 33
  directions during the interview. This gives patients a greater sense of control. As you move from one part of the history to another and on to the physical examination, orient the patient with brief transitional phrases like “Now I’d like to ask some questions about your past health.” Make clear what the patient should expect or do next . . . “Now I’d like to examine you. I’ll step out for a few minutes. Please get completely undressed and put on this gown.” Speci- fying that the gown should open in the back may earn the patient’s gratitude and save you some time. Adapting Interviewing Techniques to Specific Situations Interviewing patients may precipitate several behaviors and situations that seem particularly vexing or perplexing. Your skill at handling these situations will evolve throughout your career. Always remember the importance of listen- ing to the patient and clarifying the patient’s agenda. The Silent Patient. Novice interviewers may be uncomfortable with pe- riods of silence and feel obligated to keep the conversation going. Silence has many meanings and many purposes. Patients frequently fall silent for short pe- riods to collect thoughts, remember details, or decide whether they can trust you with certain information. The period of silence usually feels much longer to the clinician than it does to the patient. The clinician should appear atten- tive and give brief encouragement to continue when appropriate (see facilita- tive techniques on pp ___–___ and pp. ___–___). During periods of silence, watch the patient closely for nonverbal cues, such as difficulty controlling emotions. Alternatively, patients with depression or dementia may lose their usual spontaneity of expression, give short answers to questions, then quickly become silent afterwards. You may need to shift your inquiry to the symptoms of depression or begin an exploratory mental status examination (see Chapter 16, The Nervous System, pp. ___–___). At times, silence may be the patient’s response to how you are asking ques- tions. Are you asking too many direct questions in rapid sequence? Have you offended the patient in any way, for example, by signs of disapproval or criti- cism? Have you failed to recognize an overwhelming symptom such as pain, nausea, or dyspnea? If so, you may need to ask the patient directly, “You seem very quiet. Have I done something to upset you?” Finally, some patients are naturally laconic. Be accepting and try asking the pa- tient for suggestions about other sources to help you gather more informa- tion. With the patient’s permission, talking with family members or friends may be worthwhile. The Talkative Patient. The garrulous, rambling patient may be just as difficult. Faced with limited time and the need to “get the whole story,” you may grow impatient, even exasperated. Although this problem has no perfect solutions, several techniques are helpful. Give the patient free rein for the first 5 or 10 minutes and listen closely to the conversation. Perhaps the patient sim- ADAPTING INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES TO SPECIFIC SITUATIONS 34 B A T E S ’ G U I D E T O P H Y S I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N A N D H I S T O R Y T A K I N G
  ply has lacked a good listener and is expressing pent-up concerns. Maybe the patient’s style is to tell stories. Does the patient seem obsessively detailed or unduly anxious? Is there a flight of ideas or disorganized thought process that suggests a psychosis or confabulation? Try to focus on what seems most important to the patient. Show your inter- est by asking questions in those areas. Interrupt if you must, but courteously. Remember that part of your task is to structure the interview. It is acceptable to be directive and set limits when necessary. A brief summary may help you change the subject yet validate any concerns (see p. ___). “Let me make sure that I understand. You’ve described many concerns. In particular, I heard about two different kinds of pain, one on your left side that goes into your groin and is fairly new, and one in your upper abdomen after you eat that you’ve had for months. Let’s focus just on the side pain first. Can you tell me what it feels like?” Finally, do not show your impatience. If there is no more time, explain the need for a second meeting. Setting a time limit for the next appointment may be helpful. “I know we have much more to talk about. Can you come again next week? We’ll have a full hour then.” The Anxious Patient. Anxiety is a frequent and normal reaction to sick- ness, treatment, and the health care system itself. For some patients, anxiety is a filter for all their perceptions and reactions; for others it may be part of their illness. Again, watch for nonverbal and verbal cues. Anxious patients may sit tensely, fidgeting with their fingers or clothes. They may sigh frequently, lick dry lips, sweat more than average, or actually tremble. Carotid pulsations may betray a rapid heart rate. Some anxious patients fall silent, unable to speak freely or confide. Others try to cover their feelings with words, busily avoid- ing their own basic problems. When you detect anxiety, reflect your impres- sion back to the patient and encourage him or her to talk about any underly- ing concerns. Be careful not to transmit your own anxieties about completing the interview to the patient! The Crying Patient. Crying signals strong emotions, ranging from sad- ness to anger or frustration. If the patient is on the verge of tears, pausing, gentle probing, or responding with empathy allows the patient to cry. Usually crying is therapeutic, as is your quiet acceptance of the patient’s distress or pain. Offer a tissue and wait for the patient to recover. Make a facilitating or sup- portive remark like “I’m glad that you got that out.” Most patients will soon compose themselves and resume their story. Aside from cases of acute grief or loss, it is unusual for crying to escalate and become uncontrollable. Crying makes many people uncomfortable. If this is true for you, as a clini- cian, you will need to work through your feelings so that you can support pa- tients at these significant times. The Confusing Patient. Some patients are confusing because they have multiple symptoms. They seem to have every symptom that you ask about, or “a positive review of systems.” Although they may have multiple medical illnesses, a somatization disorder is more likely. With these patients, focus on the meaning or function of the symptom and guide the interview ADAPTING INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES TO SPECIFIC SITUATIONS C H A P T E R 2 ■ I N T E R V I E W I N G A N D T H E H E A L T H H I S T O R Y 35