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Crucifixion of Jesus The Crucifixion, by Vouet, 1622, Genoa Part of a series on the Death and resurrection of Jesus Passion • • • • Before Pilate • Flagellation • Crown of Thorns • Via Dolorosa • • • • Hypotheses • Resurrection • Stolen body • Swoon • Vision Holy Week • Palm Sunday • Maundy Thursday • Good Friday • Easter Miscellaneous • Atonement (substitutionary) • Crucifixion eclipse • Empty tomb • Talpiot Tomb Other views • Islamic • Jehovah’s Witnesses The crucifixion of Jesus is an event de- scribed in all four gospels[1] which takes place immediately after his arrest and trial. In Christian theology, the death of Jesus by crucifixion is a core event. It represents a critical aspect of the doctrine of salvation, portraying the suffering and death of the Messiah as necessary for the forgiveness of sins. According to the New Testament, Jesus rose from the dead after three days and ap- peared to his Disciples on different occasions during a forty day period before his ascen- sion to heaven.[2] In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the day goes dark for three hours.[3] Jesus calls out to God, then gives a shout and dies.[3] The curtain of the Temple is torn in two.[3] Matthew follows Mark, adding an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.[4] Luke also follows Mark, though he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who promises that the two of them will be together in para- dise.[5] Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion.[6] John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differ- ently.[7] Jesus’ redemptive suffering and death by crucifixion are referred to as the Passion, from the Latin verb patior, to experience. In the Christian tradition, Jesus is said to have died for the sins of the world, a doctrine gen- erally known as atonement, and in some From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 1 cases as substitutionary atonement. Jesus’ suffering is said to be foretold in Hebrew scripture, such as in Isaiah’s songs of the suf- fering servant.[8] Historians regard Jesus’ crucifixion under Pontius Pilate as a historical event.[9] Early Christians are considered unlikely to have in- vented Jesus’ crucifixion because it would have embarrassed them.[10] Overview See also: Mark 15 The following picture is what emerges from taking jointly the (non-identical, but often overlapping) accounts in the four gospels. Following the Last Supper with the twelve Apostles, Jesus was arrested in Gethsemane and forced to stand trial before the San- hedrin, Pontius Pilate, and Herod Antipas, before being handed over for crucifixion. After being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Ro- man soldiers as the "King of the Jews", clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on. Jesus then had to make his way to the place of his crucifixion. Once at Golgotha, Jesus was stripped and nailed to the beam and hung for some hours, from the third hour (Mark 15:25) to the ninth hour (Mark 15:34-37), between two convicted thieves. The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "King of the Jews" in three lan- guages, divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe, and offered him wine mixed with gall to drink, before eventually piercing his side with a spear to be certain that he had died. The gospels mention a total of seven statements that Jesus made while he was being crucified, as well as several super- natural events that occurred. Following his death, his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock- hewn tomb, with Nicodemus assisting. Accounts of the crucifixion See also: Historical Jesus That Jesus was crucified is a well-attested event of Roman history.[11] Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, the 1968 archeological discovery just north east of Jerusalem of the body of a crucified man dated to the first century provided good confirmatory evidence of the gospel accounts of crucifixion.[12] The cruci- fied man was identified as Yohan Ben Ha’gal- gol and probably died about 70AD, around the time of the Jewish revolt against Rome. The analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. These studies also showed that the man had been crucified in a manner resembling the Gospel accounts. Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the first century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike dis- covered in a Jerusalem gravesite, and is now held by the Israel Antiquities Authority and displayed in the Israel Museum.[13][14] Gospel narratives Deposition by Rubens, Lille. The earliest detailed historical narrative ac- counts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels: Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23, and John 19. There are other more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. According to all four gospels, Jesus was brought to the "Place of a Skull"[15] and cru- cified with two thieves,[16] with the charge of claiming to be "King of the Jews",[17] and the From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 2 soldiers dividing his clothes[18] before he bowed his head and died.[19] Following his death, Joseph of Arimathea requested the body from Pilate,[20] which he then placed in a new garden tomb.[21] The three synoptic gospels also describe Simon of Cyrene bearing the cross,[22] the multitude mocking Jesus[23] along with the thieves,[24] darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour,[25] and the temple veil being torn from top to bottom.[26] The synoptics also mention several witnesses, including a centurion,[27] and several women who watched from a dis- tance[28] two of whom were present during the burial.[29] Luke is the only gospel writer to omit the detail of sour wine mix that was offered to Je- sus on a reed,[30] while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.[31] There are several details that are only found in one of the gospel accounts. For in- stance, only Matthew’s gospel mentions the earthquake and resurrected saints and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb,[32] while Mark is the only one to state the actual time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 am) and the Centurion’s report of Jesus’ death.[33] The Gospel of Luke’s unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus’ words to the women who were mourning, one criminal’s rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sab- bath.[34] John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier’s subsequent piercing of Jesus’ side (as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy), as well as that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial.[35] Other accounts See also: Josephus on Jesus Very few non-Christian sources refer to the crucifixion. For instance, Roman historian Ta- citus, in his Annals (c. A.D. 116), mentions only in passing that "Christus...suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators..."[36] (see also: Tacitus on Christ) Additionally, first-century Jewish historian Josephus (in a disputed passage[37]) records: Now there was about this time Je- sus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleas- ure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had con- demned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day. —Josephus , Antiquities of the Jews - XVIII, 3:8-10 Another possible Jewish reference to the cru- cifixion ("hanging" cf. Luk 23:39; Gal 3:13) is found in the Babylonian Talmud: On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, ‘He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostacy. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf.’ But since nothing was brought for- ward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover! —Soncino English Translation of the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 43a Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above passage is likely to be about Jesus.[38] Date, place and people present The exact time, date and place of the crucifix- ion, and the list of people present, have been the subject of a wide range of research and speculation. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 3 Date of the crucifixion See also: Chronology of Jesus A series of articles on Jesus Christ and Christianity Chronology • Virgin Birth Ministry • Miracles • Parables Death • Resurrection Second Coming • Christology Names and titles • Relics • Active obedience Cultural and historical background Language spoken • Race Genealogy Perspectives on Jesus Jesus and history Belief in Jesus Biblical Jesus • Religious Christian • Lutheran Jewish • Islamic Ahmadi • Scientology Historicity • In myth Historical Jesus • Research Jesus in culture Depiction • Sexuality Although there is no final consensus regard- ing the specific year or day, it is generally agreed that it occurred during the governor- ship of Pontius Pilate (between AD 26 and AD 36) on a Friday on or near Passover (Nisan 15). (Thursday[39][40] or even Wednesday[41] crucifixion scenarios have also been sugges- ted. These scenarios are based upon Jesus’s prophecy that he was to be in the heart of the earth for three days and three nights (Mat- thew 12:40). Also, these scenarios take into account that not all Sabbaths were on Saturday. Some, like Passover, were on set days of the month. They were rarely on Saturday but they still were still considered Sabbath days. These scenarios propose that the Sabbath after Jesus was crucified was not Saturday, but the two day Sabbath of the day of Preparation and the day of Passover. Then He, Jesus, rose from the dead three days and three nights later on the first day of the week, Sunday.) John’s Gospel implies that at the time of the trial the Jewish leaders had not yet eaten the Passover meal[42] and expli- citly states just prior to his sentencing "Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover. It was about the sixth hour."[43] This places the crucifixion on Nisan 14, since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00 pm and 5:00 pm and eaten be- fore midnight on Nissan 14.[44][45][46] This understanding fits well with Old Testament typology, in which Jesus entered Jerusalem to identify himself as the Paschal lamb on Nisan 10,[47] was crucified and died at 3:00 in the afternoon of Nisan 14, at the same time the High Priest would have sacrificed the Paschal lamb,[48] and rose before dawn the morning of Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the First Fruits.[49] Matthias Stom’s depiction of Jesus before Caiaphas The chronology presented by John is prob- lematic in reconciling with the Synoptic pas- sages and the tradition that the Last Supper was a Passover meal,[50] placing the crucifix- ion instead on Nisan 15. However, the appar- ent contradiction may be resolved by postu- lating differences in how post-exilic Jews reckoned time.[51] For Jesus and his dis- ciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn Thursday, while for traditional Jews (following Leviticus 23:5), it would not have begun until dusk that same day.[52][53] Another potential solution is that Jesus chose to celebrate the Passover meal a day early with his disciples.[54][55][56] Isaac Newton was one of the first scient- ists to estimate the date of the crucifixion by calculating the relative visibility of the cres- cent of the new moon between the Hebrew and Julian calendars. Newton suggested the date as Friday, April 23 AD 34.[57] Writing in the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1991, John Pratt argued that Newton’s reasoning was effectively sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD as the accurate answer.[58] Using From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 4 similar computations, in 1990 astronomer Bradley Schaefer arrived at the same date, Friday, April 3 33 AD.[59] Thus it can be con- cluded that Newton’s argument favors the April 3 33 AD date. Somewhat earlier than Pratt, in a 1983 article in the journal Nature, Humphreys and Waddington of Oxford University also confirmed Friday April 3 33 AD as the date of the Crucifixion. [60] This date was further confirmed in 2003. Using a computer program, astronomers Liviu Mircea and Tiberiu Oproiu again estimated that Je- sus died at 3 pm on Friday, April 3, 33 AD, and rose on Sunday, April 5, dates that agree with Schaefer.[61][62] Another computer cal- culation suggests somewhat different dates.[63] Path to the crucifixion The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene who is made to carry the cross,[64] while in the Gospel of John, Je- sus is said to "bear" his own cross.[65] Jesus helped by Simon of Cyrene, 19th cen- tury Brazilian depiction. Luke’s gospel also describes an interac- tion between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quot- ing Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, ’Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!’ Then they will begin to say to the mountains, ’Fall on us,’ and to the hills, ’Cover us.’ For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"[66] Traditionally, the path that Jesus took is called Via Dolorosa (Latin for "Way of Grief" or "Way of Suffering") and is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is marked by nine of the fourteen Stations of the Cross. It passes the Ecce Homo Church and the last five sta- tions are inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. There is no reference to the legendary[67] Saint Veronica in the Gospels. But according to the Acta Sanctorum published by the Bol- landists, Saint Veronica was a pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead. Jesus reportedly accepted the offering and after us- ing it handed it back to her, the image of his face miraculously impressed upon it. This re- ported image then became known as the Veil of Veronica (in Italian as the Volto Santo) and was the starting point for the devotions to the Holy Face of Jesus by Roman Cathol- ics.[68][69] Place of the crucifixion See also: Empty tomb A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sep- ulchre and the historical site based on a Ger- man documentary. The precise location of the crucifixion re- mains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 5 accounts indicate that it would have been outside the city walls,[70] accessible to passers-by,[71] and observable from some dis- tance away.[72] Eusebius identified its loca- tion only as being north of Mount Zion,[73] which is consistent with the two most pop- ularly suggested sites of modern times. Calvary is an English name derived from the Latin word for skull (calvaria), which is how Jerome translated the Aramaic word Gûlgaltâ which identifies the place where Je- sus was crucified. Although the text does not indicate why it was so designated, several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of aban- doned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e. the place called "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.[74] The traditional site, inside what is now oc- cupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Christian Quarter of the Old City, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon’s Cal- vary), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb, has been promoted since the 19th cen- tury, mostly by Protestants. People present at the crucifixion The Gospel of Luke (Luke 23:28-31) states that on the way to Calvary Jesus spoke to a number of women within the crowd of mourners following him, addressing them as "Daughters of Jerusalem". Biblical scholars have produced various theories about the identity of these women, and those actually present during the Crucifixion itself, includ- ing among them the Virgin Mary and Saint Mary Magdalene.[75][76] Luke’s Gospel does not mention that the Virgin Mary was present during crucifixion. However, the Gospel of John (John 19:26-27) does place the Virgin Mary at the Crucifixion and states that while on the Cross: Jesus saw his own mother, and the disciple standing near whom he loved, he said to his mother, "Woman, behold your son". The Gospel of John also places other wo- men (The Three Marys), at the Cross. John 19:25 states that Near the cross of Jesus stood his mother, his mother’s sister, Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene.[77] It is uncertain whether the Gospel of John totally refers to three or four women at the Cross. References to the women are also made in Matthew 27:56 and Mark 15:40 (which also mentions Salome) and comparing these references they all seem to include Saint Mary Magdalene.[78] The Gospel of Mark states that Roman sol- diers were also present at the Crucifixion: And when the centurion, who stood there in front of Jesus, heard his cry and saw how he died, he said, "Surely this man was the Son of God!".[79] Last words of Jesus The gospel writers record seven statements uttered by Jesus while he was on the cross: • "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." (Luke 23:34) • "Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise." (Luke 23:43) • "Woman, behold, your son!" (John 19:25-27) • "E′li, E′li, la′ma sa·bach·tha′ni?" (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34) (Aramaic for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?") • "I thirst." (John 19:28) • "It is finished." (John 19:30) • "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit!" (Luke 23:46) These are all short utterances. See the sec- tion below on the Medical aspects of crucifix- ion, on how in the face of exhaustion asphyx- ia, obtaining enough air to utter any words on the cross can be very tiring and painful for the victim.[80][81] Phenomena during the crucifixion Mark mentions darkness in the daytime dur- ing Jesus’ crucifixion and the Temple veil be- ing torn in two when Jesus dies.[3] Matthew follows Mark, adding an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.[4] Luke also follows From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 6 Mark.[5] In John, there are no such miracu- lous signs.[82] Instead, Jesus’ triumph over death is the only sign revealing Jesus’ divin- ity.[82] Darkness and eclipse In the synoptic narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky is "darkened for 3 hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). Both Roman orator Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Ori- gen refer to Greek historian Phlegon as hav- ing written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place"[83] Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of his- torian Thallus when ruling out the possibility of a solar eclipse: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as ap- pears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day be- fore the passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun."[84] A solar eclipse concurrent with a full moon is a scientific impossibility. Christi- an apologist Tertullian wrote "In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his me- ridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives."[85] Humphreys and Waddington of Oxford University reconstructed the Jewish calendar in the first century AD and arrived at the con- clusion that Friday April 3 33AD was the date of the Crucifixion.[86] Humphreys and Wad- dington went further and also reconstructed the scenarios for a lunar eclipse on that day.[87] They concluded that: "This eclipse was visible from Jerus- alem at moonrise.... first visible from Jerusalem at about 6:20pm (the start of the Jewish Sabbath and also the start of Passover day in A.D. 33) with about 20% of its disc in the um- bra of the earth’s shadow .... The ec- lipse finished some thirty minutes later at 6:50pm." Moreover, their calculations showed that the 20% umbra shadow was positioned close to the leading edge, the first visible portion at moonrise. Readily available astronomy pro- grams can be used to verify these details. These authors note that the Apostle Peter’s reference to a "moon of blood" in Acts 2:20 (a term commonly used for a lunar eclipse be- cause of the reddish color of the light refrac- ted onto the moon through the Earth’s atmo- sphere) may be a reference to this eclipse. Temple veil, earthquake and resurrection The synoptic gospels state that the veil of the temple was torn from top to bottom. Accord- ing to Josephus, the curtain in Herod’s temple would have been nearly 60 feet (18 m) high and 4 inches (100 mm) thick. Ac- cording to Hebrews 9:1-10, this curtain was representative of the separation between God and man, beyond which only the High Priest was permitted to pass, and then only once each year (cf. Exodus 30:10) to enter in- to God’s presence and make atonement for the sins of Israel (Leviticus 16). Bible exposit- ors agree that the rending of the veil is sym- bolic of Jesus establishing a new and living way of access to God (Hebrews 9:11-15). The Gospel of Matthew states that there were earthquakes, splitting rocks, and the graves of dead saints were opened (and sub- sequently resurrected after the resurrection of Jesus). The fate of these resurrected saints is never elaborated upon.[88] In the synoptic accounts, the centurion in charge, witnessing these events, says: "Truly this was the Son of God!" (Matthew 27:54); or "Truly this man was the Son of God!" (Mark 15:39); or "Certainly this man was in- nocent!" (Luke 23:47). Death of Jesus: Theolo- gical significance The theological significance of death by cru- cifixion is at times discussed in terms of the cross being a curse. The Heidelberg Catech- ism suggests that the special meaning behind Jesus’ death by crucifixion rather than some other method is that the believer is "assured that He took upon Himself the curse which lay on me, for a crucified one was cursed by God" (Q & A 39). From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 7 Similarly, Galatians 3: 13 quotes Deutero- nomy 21: 23 in its assertion that Christ re- deemed us from the curse of the law by be- coming a curse for us, for it is written: "Cursed is everyone who is hung on a tree." Atonement Bronzino’s Deposition of Christ Jesus’ death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. A com- mon feature of all these interpretations is that they place greater emphasis on the death and resurrection than on his words.[89] To most Christians, Jesus willingly sacri- ficed himself as an act of perfect obedience as a substitutionary atonement, a sacrifice of love which pleased God.[90] Many modern branches of Christianity embrace substitu- tionary atonement as the central meaning of Jesus’ death on the cross. These branches however have developed different theories of atonement. The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholics incorporates substitution- ary atonement as one (relatively minor) element of a single doctrine of the Cross and Resurrection, the Roman Catholic church in- corporates it into Aquinas’ Satisfaction doc- trine rooted in the idea of penance,[90] and Evangelical Protestants interpret it largely in terms of penal substitution. In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Ro- man Catholics to perform Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ[68] which in the encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor of Pope Pius XI were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.[91] Pope John Paul II referred to these Acts of Reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."[92] The Christus Victor view, which is more common among Eastern Orthodox Christians, holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and Satan. Because of his perfection, voluntary death, and Resurrection, Jesus de- feated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through faith in Jesus.[93] Medical aspects of the crucifixion A number of theories that attempt to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross via medical knowledge of 19th and 20th century have been proposed by a range of people, including physicians, historians and even mystics. Most theories proposed by trained physi- cians (with specialties ranging from forensic medicine to ophthamology) conclude that Je- sus endured tremendous amounts of pain and suffering on the Cross before his death. In 2006, general practitioner John Scotson re- viewed over 40 publications on the cause of death of Jesus and theories ranged from car- diac rupture to pulmonary embolism.[94] As early as 1847, drawing on John 19:34, physician William Stroud proposed the rup- tured heart theory of the cause of Christ’s death and it influenced a number of other people.[95][96] The asphyxia theory has been the subject of several experiments that simu- late crucifixion in healthy volunteers and many physicians agree that crucifixion causes a profound disruption of the victim’s From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 8 ability to breathe. A side effect of exhaustive asphyxia is that the crucifixion victim will gradually find it more and more challenging to obtain enough breath to speak. This provides a possible explanation of the fact that the last words of Christ were short utter- ances.[97] The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross would have left Je- sus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and that the stage was set for a complex interplay of simultaneous physiological insults: dehyd- ration, massive trauma and soft tissue injury (especially from the prior scourging), inad- equate respiration, and strenuous physical exertion, leading to cardiovascular col- lapse.[98][99] In her 1944 book Poem of the Man God Italian writer and mystic Maria Valtorta (who had no medical education) provided a very detailed account of the death of Jesus that supports the cardiovascular collapse theory, compounded by partial asphyxiation, and she wrote that the account was dictated to her by Jesus himself in a vision.[100] Endocrinilogist Nicholas Pende expressed agreement with Valtorta’s account and expressed surprise at the level of detail in which Valtorta depicted Christ’s spasms in Crucifixion.[101] Writing in the Journal of the American Medical Association, physician William Ed- wards and his colleagues supported the com- bined cardiovascular collapse (via hypo- volemic shock) and exhaustion asphyxia the- ories, assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the Gospel of John, 19:34 was pericardial fluid.[102] Some Christian Apologists seem to favor this theory and maintain that this medical anomaly would have been a fact that the author of the Gospel of John would have been tempted to leave out, had he not been interested in ac- curate reporting.[103] In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus, physi- cian and forensic pathologist Frederick Zu- gibe provides a set of theories that attempt to explain the nailing, pains and death of Jesus in great detail.[104][105] Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical ex- aminer.[106] These studies included experi- ments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was meas- ured, in cases where the feet were also se- cured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.[107] Pierre Barbet, a pharmacist and science fiction writer, advanced a set of detailed the- ories on the death of Jesus. He hypothesized that Jesus would have had to relax his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia. Barbet hypothesized that a crucified person would have to use his pierced feet to lift his body in order to obtain enough breath to speak.[108] Some of Barbet’s theories, e.g. location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe. Ophthalmologist and pastor C. Truman Davis also published a physician’s view of the crucifixion, agreeing with Barbet, but his analysis is far less detailed than Zugibe.[109] Orthopedic surgeon Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the Cru- cifixion, but also looked backed at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along Via Dolorosa.[110][111] In an article for the Catholic Medical Asso- ciation, Phillip Bishop and physiologist Brian Church suggested a new theory based on sus- pension trauma.[112] In 2003, historians FP Retief and L Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of cruci- fixion as performed by the Romans and sug- gested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.[113] Crucifixion in art, sym- bolism and devotions Since the crucifixion of Jesus, the cross has become a key element of Christian symbol- ism, and the crucifixion scene has been a key element of Christian art, giving rise to specif- ic artistic themes such as Ecce Homo, The Raising of the Cross, Descent from the Cross and Entombment of Christ. The symbolism of the cross which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times and Justin Martyr who died in 165 de- scribes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol, although the crucifix appeared later.[114][115] Masters such as Caravaggio, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 9 Rubens and Titian have depicted the crucifix- ion scene. Devotions based on the process of crucifix- ion, and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians. The Stations of the Cross follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus, while the Rosary of the Holy Wounds is used to meditate on the wounds of Jesus as part of the crucifixion. The presence of the Virgin Mary under the Cross, as stated in the Gospel of John (John 19:26-27), has in itself been the subject of Marian art, and well known Catholic symbol- ism such as the Miraculous Medal and Pope John Paul II’s Coat of Arms bearing a Marian Cross. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g. Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross".[116][117] Well known works of Christi- an art by masters such as Raphael (e.g. the Mond Crucifixion), and Caravaggio (e.g. his Entombment) depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene. Gallery of art Betrayal of Christ, stained glass, Gotland, Sweden, 1240 Mateo Cerezo, Ecce Homo, 1650 Carrying the Cross fresco, Decani monastery, Kosovo, 14th century Byzantine crucifixion icon, Athens, Greece Michelangelo: Crucifixion of Christ, 1540 Calvary by Paolo Veronese, 16th century Descent from the Cross, Raphael, 1507 Pietro Lorenzetti fresco, Assisi Ba- silica, 1310-1329 References [1] Matthew 27:33-44; Mark 15:22-32; Luke 23:33-43; John 19:17-30 [2] John 19:30–31; Mark 16:1; Mark 16:6 [3] ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Mark," p. 51-161 [4] ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Matthew," p. 129-270 [5] ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Luke," p. 267-364 [6] Ehrman, Bart D.. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 [7] Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "John" pp. 365-440 [8] "Passion, the." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 [9] Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. [10] "Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005. [11]Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0060616628. "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact." [12]David Freedman, 2000, Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ISBN 9780802824004, page 299. [13]Crucifixion Article [1] [14]Article on the Crucifixion of Jesus [2] [15]Matthew 27:33 - "place called Golgotha (which means Place of a Skull)"; Mark 15:22 (same as Matthew); Luke 23:32-33 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 10 - "place that is called The Skull"; John 19:17 - "place called The Place of a Skull, which in Aramaic is called Golgotha" [16]Matthew 27:38; Mark 15:27-28; Luke 23:33; John 19:18 [17]Matthew 27:37 - "This is Jesus, the King of the Jews."; Mark 15:26 - "The King of the Jews."; Luke 23:38 - "This is the King of the Jews." Some manuscripts add in letters of Greek and Latin and Hebrew; John 19:19-22 - "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." "...it was written in Aramaic, in Latin, and in Greek." [18]Matthew 27:35-36; Mark 15:24; Luke 23:34; John 19:23-24 [19]Matthew 27:50; Mark 15:37; Luke 23:46; John 19:30 [20]Matthew 27:57-58; Mark 15:42-43; Luke 23:50-52; John 19:38 [21]Matthew 27:59-60; Mark 15:46; Luke 23:53; John 19:41-42 [22]Matthew 27:31-32; Mark 15:20-21; Luke 23:26 [23]Matthew 27:39-43; Mark 15:29-32; Luke 23:35-37 [24]Matthew 27:44; Mark 15:32; Luke 23:39 [25]Matthew 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44-45 [26]Matthew 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45 [27]Matthew 27:54; Mark 15:39; Luke 23:47 [28]Matthew 27:55-56; Mark 15:40-41; Luke 23:49 [29]Matthew 27:61; Mark 15:47; Luke 23:54-55 [30]Matthew 27:34; 27:47-49; Mark 15:23; 15:35-36; John 19:29-30 [31]Mark 15:45; John 19:38 [32]Matthew 27:51; 27:62-66 [33]Mark 15:25; 15:44-45 [34]Luke 23:27-32; 23:40-41; 23:48; 23:56 [35] John 19:31-37; 19:39-40 [36]Tacitus. "Annals, XXV.44". http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/ roman/tacitus/annals/bookxv.html. [37]Louis Feldman counts 87 articles published during the period of 1937-1980, "the overwhelming majority of which question its authenticity in whole or in part". Feldman, Louis H (1989). Josephus, the Bible, and History. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 430. ISBN 9004089314. http://books.google.com/ books?id=lV70mR-E0DQC. [38]Goldstein, Morris (1950). Jesus in the Jewish Tradition. New York: Macmillan Co.. [39]Rusk, Roger. "The Day He Died". http://user.txcyber.com/~wd5iqr/tcl/ dayhedie.htm. [40]Langford, Jack. "Christ Our Passover". http://separationtruth.com/resources/ Christ+Our+Passover+new.pdf. [41]Coulter, FR (2006). A Harmony of the Gospels in Modern English - The Life of Jesus Christ. Hollister, CA: York. pp. 1256–258. [42] John 18:28 [43] John 19:14 [44]Philo. "De Specialibus Legibus 2.145". http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/ philo/book28.html. [45] Josephus. The War of the Jews 6.9.3 [46]Mishnah, Pesahim 5.1. [47]Exodus 12:1-6 [48]1 Corinthians 5:7; cf. Isaiah 53:7-9 [49]1 Corinthians 15:23; cf. Leviticus 23:9-14 [50]Matthew 26:17-19; Mark 14:12-16; Luke 22:7-8 [51]Stroes, H. R. (October 1966). "Does the Day Begin in the Evening or Morning? Some Biblical Observations". Vetus Testamentum 16 (4): 460–475. doi:10.2307/1516711. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1516711. [52]Ross, Allen. "Daily Life In The Time Of Jesus". http://www.bible.org/ page.php?page_id=3953. [53]Hoener, Harold (1977). Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. [54]Matthew 26:18; Luke 22:15 [55]Heawood, Percy J. (July 1951). "The Time of the Last Supper". The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series 42 (1): 37–44. http://www.jstor.org/pss/ 1452717. [56]Schmidt, Nathaniel (1892). "The Character of Christ’s Last Meal". Journal of Biblical Literature 11 (1): 1–21. doi:10.2307/3259075. http://www.jstor.org/pss/3259075. [57]Newton, Isaac (1733). "Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ", in Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John [58]Pratt, J. P. (1991). "Newton’s Date for the Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 32 (3): 301–304. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/ 1991QJRAS..32..301P. [59]Schaefer, B. E. (1990). "Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 11 Astronomical Society 31 (1): 53–67. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/ 1990QJRAS..31...53S. [60]Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46. [3] [61]Astronomers on the Date of the Crucifixion [62]Astronomers on Date of Christ’s Death [63]Goldstine, Hermman H. (1973). New and Full Moons, 1001 B.C. to A.D. 1651. Philadelphia. p. 86. quoted by Hohener, Harold (1977). Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 100. [64]Matthew 27:32, Mark 15:21, Luke 23:26 [65] John 19:17 [66]Luke 23:28-31 [67]Lavinia Cohn-Sherbok, Who’s who in Christianity, (Routledge 1998), page 303. [68]^ Ball, Ann (2003). Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices. Huntington, Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 087973910X. [69]Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Veronica". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/ index.php?term=Veronica. Retrieved on 2007-08-24. [70] John 19:20, Hebrews 13:12 [71]Matthew 27:39, Mark 15:21,29-30 [72]Mark 15:40 [73]Eusebius of Caesarea. Onomasticon (Concerning the Place Names in Sacred Scripture). http://www.tertullian.org/ fathers/ eusebius_onomasticon_02_trans.htm#G_THE_GOSPELS. [74]Eucherius of Lyon. "Letter to the Presbyter Faustus". http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/ jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm. "The three more frequented exit gates are one on the west, another on the east, and a third on the north. As you enter the city from the northern side, the first of the holy places due to the condition of the directions of the streets is to the church which is called the Martyrium, which was by Constantine with great reverence not long ago built up. Next, to the west one visits the connecting places Golgotha and the Anastasis; indeed the Anastasis is in the place of the resurrection, and Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord’s passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was. These are however separated places outside of Mount Sion, where the failing rise of the place extended itself to the north." [75] Jenny Schroedel, 2006, The Everything Mary Book ISBN 9781593377137 page 23 [76]Carol Meyers, 2001, Women in Scripture ISBN 9780802849625 page 119 [77] John 19:25 [78] John Phillips, 2001, Exploring the Gospel of John ISBN 9780825434891 page 366 [79]Mark 15:39 [80]Medical Analysis of Crucifixion [4] [81]Catholic Doctors on Crucifixion [5] [82]^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302-310 [83]Origen. "Contra Celsum (Against Celsus), Book 2, XXXIII". http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ text/origen162.html. [84] Julius Africanus. The Extant Fragments of the Chronography, XVIII [85]Tertullian. "Apologeticum". http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/ tertullian01.html. [86]Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46. [6] [87]Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, The Date of the Crucifixion Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[7] [88]Matthew 27:51–53 [89]For example, see Matthew 6:14–15). See also Sermon on the Mount [90]^ "Doctrine of the Atonement". Catholic Encyclopedia. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ 02055a.htm. [91] "Miserentissimus Redemptor". Encyclical of Pope Pius XI. http://www.vatican.va/ holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/ documents/hf_p- xi_enc_08051928_miserentissimus- redemptor_en.html. [92] "Vatican archives". http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/ john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/ hf_jp- ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 12 [93] Johnson, Alan F., and Robert E. Webber (1993). What Christians Believe: A Biblical and Historical Summary. Zondervan. pp. 261–263. [94] John Scotson Medical theories on the cause of death in crucifixion Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Aug 2006.[8] [95]William Stroud, 1847, Treatise on the Physical Death of Jesus Christ London: Hamilton and Adams. [96]William Seymour, 2003, The Cross in Tradition, History and Art ISBN 0766145271 [97]Columbia University page of Pierre Barbet on Crucifixion[9] [98]The Search for the Physical Cause of Christ’s Death BYU Studies.[10] [99]The Physical Death Of Jesus Christ, Study by The Mayo Clinic citing studies by Bucklin R (The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ. Sci Law 1970; 10:14-26), Mikulicz- Radeeki FV (The chest wound in the crucified Christ. Med News 1966;14:30-40), Davis CT (The crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medical point of view. Ariz Med 1965;22:183-187), and Barbet P (A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon, Earl of Wicklow (trans) Garden City, NY, Doubleday Image Books 1953, pp 12-18 37-147, 159-175, 187-208). [100]Maria Valtorta 1944, The Poem of the Man God, Valtorta Publishing, ISBN 9992645571. [101]Pende Quotes on Valtorta http://www.sacredheartofjesus.ca/ MariaValtorta/ M%20A%20R%20I%20A.htm [102]Edwards, William D.; Gabel, Wesley J.; Hosmer, Floyd E; On the Physical Death of Jesus, JAMA March 21 1986, Vol 255, No. 11, pp 1455–1463 [11] [103]Jesus Died on the Cross [104]Frederick Zugibe, 2005, The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry Evans Publishing, ISBN 1590770706 [105]JW Hewitt, The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion Harvard Theological Review, 1932 [106]Crucifixion Shroud [12] [107]Crucifixion experiments [13] [108]Barbet, Pierre. Doctor at Calvary, New York: Image Books, 1963. [109]C. Truman Davis A medical explanation of what Jesus endured [14] [110]Keith Maxwell MD on the Crucifixion of Christ [15] [111]Jesus’ Suffering and Crucifixion from a Medical Point of View[16] [112]Catholic Medical Association, Linacre Quarterly, August 2006. [17] [113]FP Retief and L Cilliers The history and pathology of crucifixion South African medical journal, 2003.[18] [114]Catholic encyclopedia on Symbolism [19] [115]Catholic encyclopedia on Veneration of Images [20] [116]EWTN: Mary was United to Jesus on the Cross [21] [117]Vatican website on Behold Your Mother! [22] Further reading • Cousar, Charles B. (1990). A Theology of the Cross: The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800615581. • Dennis, John (2006). "Jesus’ Death in John’s Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts". Currents in Biblical Research 4 (3): 331–363. doi:10.1177/ 1476993X06064628. • Dilasser, Maurice (1999). The Symbols of the Church. ISBN 081462538. • Green, Joel B. (1988). The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3161453492. • Humphreys, Colin J. (December 1983). "Dating the Crucifixion". Nature 306: 743–746. doi:10.1038/306743a0. • Rosenblatt, Samuel (December 1956). "The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law". Journal of Biblical Literature 75 (4): 315–321. doi:10.2307/3261265. • McRay, John (1991). Archaeology and the New Testament. Baker Books. ISBN 0801062675. • Sloyan, Gerard S. (1995). The Crucifixion of Jesus. Fortress Press. ISBN 0800628861. • Schwertley, Brian (2006). "The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ". Reformed Online Library. Westminster Presbyterian Church of Waupaca County. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 13 http://www.reformedonline.com/view/ reformedonline/ 13%20The%20Crucifixion%20of%20Jesus%20Christ.htm. • Terasaka, David (1996). "Medical Aspects of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ". The Blue Letter Bible. http://blueletterbible.org/Comm/terasaka/ crucify.html. See also • Atonement • Passion (Christianity) • Descent from the Cross • Acs of Reparation External links • Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion: Date of Jesus’ Crucifixion • Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus of Nazareth: The Crucifixion • Was Jesus crucified on Wednesday or Friday? Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" Categories: Christian miracle narrative, Jesus and history, Sorrowful Mysteries, 30s, Stations of the Cross This page was last modified on 19 May 2009, at 05:19 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax- deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Crucifixion of Jesus 14
