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Charles de Gaulle Charles de Gaulle Leader of the Free French Forces In office 18 June 1940 – 3 July 1944 Preceded by Third French Republic Succeeded by Provisional Government of the French Republic President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic In office 3 July 1944 – 20 January 1946 Succeeded by Felix Gouin Prime Minister of France In office 1 June 1958 – 8 January 1959 President René Coty Preceded by Pierre Pflimlin Succeeded by Michel Debré Minister of Defense In office 1 June 1958 – 8 January 1959 President René Coty Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle Preceded by Pierre de Chevigné Succeeded by Pierre Guillaumat 18th President of the French Republic & Co-Prince of Andorra In office 8 January 1959 – 28 April 1969 Prime Minister Michel Debré (1959–1961) Georges Pompidou (1962–1968) Maurice Couve de Murville (1968–1969) Preceded by René Coty Succeeded by Alain Poher (interim) Georges Pompidou Born 22 November 1890(1890-11-22) Lille, France Died 9 November 1970 (aged 79) Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, France Political party Rally of the French People (1947-1955) Union for the New Republic (1958–1968) Union of Democrats for the Republic (1968–1970) Spouse Yvonne de Gaulle Occupation Military Religion Roman Catholic Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( listen ), French pronunciation: [də ˈɡoːl], English generally pronounced /də ˈɡɔːl/; 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French gen- eral and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969.[1] In France, he is commonly referred to as Général de Gaulle or simply Le Général, or familiarly as "le Grand Charles". A veteran of World War I, in the 1920s and 1930s de Gaulle came to the fore as a proponent of armored warfare and advocate of military aviation, which he considered a means to break the stalemate of trench From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 1 warfare. During World War II, he reached the rank of Brigadier General, leading one of the few successful armored counter-attacks dur- ing the 1940 Fall of France, and then organ- ized the Free French Forces with exiled French officers in England.[2] He gave a fam- ous radio address in June 1940, exhorting the French people to resist Nazi Germany.[3] Fol- lowing the liberation of France in 1944, de Gaulle became prime minister in the French Provisional Government.[4] Although he re- tired from politics in 1946 due to political conflicts, he was returned to power with mil- itary support following the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle led the writing of a new constitu- tion founding the Fifth Republic, and was elected President of France.[5][6][7] As president, Charles de Gaulle ended the political chaos and violence that preceded his return to power. Although he initially suppor- ted French rule over Algeria, he controver- sially decided to grant independence to that country, ending an expensive and unpopular war. A new currency was issued to control in- flation and industrial growth was promoted. De Gaulle oversaw the development of atom- ic weapons and promoted a pan-European foreign policy, seeking to diminish U.S. and British influence; withdrawing France from the NATO military command, he objected to Britain’s entry into the European Community and he recognized Communist China. During his term, de Gaulle also faced controversy and political opposition from Communists and Socialists, and a spate of widespread protests in May 1968. De Gaulle retired in 1969, but remains the most influential leader in modern French history. According to Henri, the family’s true ori- gin was never determined, but could have been Celtic or Flemish. He thought that the name could be derived from the word gaule—a long pole which was used in the Middle Ages to beat olives from the trees.[8][9] Another source has the name de- riving from Galle, meaning "oak" in the Gaul- ish language, and the sacred tree of the druids.[10] Since de Gaulle’s family hailed from French Flanders, the name could also be a francisized form of the common Dutch Van de Walle meaning From the moat. De Gaulle was educated in Paris at the College Stanislas and also briefly in Belgium. Since childhood, he had displayed a keen in- terest in reading and studying history.[11] Choosing a military career, de Gaulle spent four years studying and training at the elite Saint-Cyr. While there, and because of his height, high forehead, and nose, he acquired the nicknames of "the great as- paragus".[12][13] and "Cyrano".[14] Graduat- ing in 1912, he joined the 33rd infantry regi- ment of the French Army, based at Arras. While serving during World War I, he was wounded and captured at Douaumont in the Battle of Verdun in March 1916.[11] While be- ing held as a prisoner of war by the German Army, de Gaulle wrote his first book, co-writ- ten by Matthieu Butler, "L’Ennemi et le vrai ennemi" (The Enemy and the True Enemy), analyzing the issues and divisions within the German Empire and its forces; the book was published in 1924. After the armistice, de Gaulle continued to serve in the army and on the staff of General Maxime Weygand’s milit- ary mission to Poland during its war with Communist Russia (1919-1921), working as an instructor to Polish infantry forces.[11] He distinguished himself in operations near the River Zbrucz and won the highest Polish mil- itary decoration, the Virtuti Militari.[15] He was promoted to Commandant and offered a further career in Poland, but chose instead to return to France, where he served as a staff officer and also taught at the École Militaire, becoming a protégé of his old com- mander, Marshal Philippe Pétain.[11] De Gaulle was heavily influenced by the use of tanks, rapid maneuvers and limited trench warfare. In the 1930 - early 1940s, de Gaulle wrote various books and articles on military sub- jects that revealed him to be a gifted writer and an imaginative thinker.[11] In 1931, he published Le fil de l’épée (Eng. tr., The Edge of the Sword, 1960), an analysis of military and political leadership. He also published Vers l’armée de métier (1934; Eng. tr., The Army of the Future, 1941) and La France et son armée (1938; Eng. tr., France and Her Army, 1945). He urged the creation of a mechanised army with special armoured divi- sions manned by a corps of professional spe- cialist soldiers instead of the static theories exemplified by the Maginot Line. While views similar to de Gaulle’s were later advanced by Britain’s J.F.C. Fuller, Germany’s Heinz Guderian, United States’ Dwight D. Eisen- hower and George S. Patton, Russia’s Mikhail Tukhachevsky, and Poland’s General Władysław Sikorski, most of de Gaulle’s the- ories were rejected by other French army From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 2 officers, including his mentor Pétain with whom relations consequently became strained. According to Albert Speer, Adolf Hitler himself claimed to have planned the in- vasion of western Europe with De Gaulle’s theories in mind.[16] French politicians also dismissed de Gaulle’s ideas, questioning the political reliability of a professional army — with the notable exception of Paul Reynaud, who would play a major role in de Gaulle’s career. De Gaulle would have some contacts with Ordre Nouveau, a Non-Conformist group at the end of 1934 and the beginning of 1935.[17] Free French leader dur- ing World War II At the outbreak of World War II, de Gaulle was only a colonel, having antagonised the leaders of the military through the 1920s and 1930s with his bold views. Initially command- ing a tank brigade in the French 5th Army, de Gaulle implemented many of his theories and tactics for armoured warfare. After the German breakthrough at Sedan on 15 May 1940 he was given command of the 4th Ar- mored Division.[18] On 17 May, de Gaulle at- tacked German tank forces at Montcornet with 200 tanks but no air support; on 28 May, de Gaulle’s tanks forced the German in- fantry to retreat to Caumont—some of the few tactical successes the French enjoyed while suffering defeats across the country. De Gaulle was promoted to the rank of bri- gadier general, which he would hold for the rest of his life. On 6 June, Prime Minister Paul Reynaud appointed him Undersecretary of State for National Defense and War and put him in charge of coordination with the United King- dom.[19] As a junior member of the French government, he unsuccessfully opposed sur- render, advocating instead that the govern- ment remove itself to North Africa and carry on the war as best it could from France’s African colonies. While serving as a liaison with the British government, de Gaulle tele- phoned Paul Reynaud, the French prime min- ister, from London on 16 June informing him of the offer by Britain of a Declaration of Union.[20] This would have in effect merged France and the United Kingdom into a single country, with a single government and a single army for the duration of the war. This was a desperate last-minute effort to strengthen the resolve of those members of the French government who were in favor of fighting on. The man behind the offer of a declaration of union was Jean Monnet, who was based in London as President of the Franco-British Committee of Co-operation. Monnet had first sought the advice of Desmond Morton, Churchill’s Personal Assistant, who sugges- ted that the proposal be put to Churchill through Neville Chamberlain. The latter in- terceded with Churchill and the idea was put before the Cabinet, where it was approved. The final document was drafted by Robert Vansittart, Permanent Secretary to the For- eign Office, in conjunction with Monnet him- self, Desmond Morton, Churchill’s Personal Assistant, Sir Arthur Salter, MP for Oxford University, and Monnet’s deputy at the Franco-British Committee of Co-operation, René Pleven.[21] When the proposal was put before Churchill, he was initially unenthusiastic. However, de Gaulle managed to convince him that "some dramatic move was essential to give Reynaud the support which he needed to keep his Government in the war".[22] Yet des- pite his endorsement of the extraordinary proposal at the time, de Gaulle later sought to distance himself from it. During an inter- view in 1964, which was reported in Paris Match shortly after the general’s death, de Gaulle had remarked that he and Churchill had tried to improvise something but that neither of them had any illusions. It had been a myth, like other myths, dreamed up by Jean Monnet. This report brought an instant re- buttal from Monnet, who insisted that he had personally informed de Gaulle of the proposi- tion and that the latter had simply acqui- esced, albeit with great hesitation. De Gaulle’s intervention in the matter had been later.[23] Returning the same day to Bordeaux, the temporary wartime capital, de Gaulle learned that Marshal Pétain had become prime minis- ter and was planning to seek an armistice with Nazi Germany. De Gaulle and allied of- ficers rebelled against the new French gov- ernment; on the morning of 17 June, de Gaulle and other senior French officers fled the country with 100,000 gold francs in secret funds provided to him by the ex-prime minister Paul Reynaud. Narrowly escaping the Luftwaffe, he landed safely in London From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 3 General de Gaulle speaking on the BBC dur- ing the war. that afternoon. De Gaulle strongly denounced the French government’s decision to seek peace with the Nazis and set about building the Free French Forces out of the soldiers and officers who were deployed outside France and in its colonies or had fled France with him. On 18 June, de Gaulle delivered a famous radio address via the BBC radio ser- vice. Although the British cabinet initially at- tempted to block the speech, they were over- ruled by Churchill. De Gaulle’s Appeal of 18 June exhorted the French people to not be demoralised and to continue to resist the oc- cupation of France and work against the Vichy regime, which had allied itself with Nazi Germany. Although the original speech could only be heard in a few parts of occu- pied France, de Gaulle’s subsequent ones reached many parts of the territories under the Vichy regime, helping to rally the French resistance movement and earning him much popularity amongst the French people and soldiers. On 4 July 1940, a court-martial in Toulouse sentenced de Gaulle in absentia to four years in prison. At a second court-mar- tial on 2 August 1940 de Gaulle was con- demned to death for treason against the Vichy regime.[18] With British support, de Gaulle settled himself in Berkhamstead (36 miles northwest of London) and began organising the Free French forces. Gradually, the Allies gave in- creasing support and recognition to de Gaulle’s efforts. In dealings with his British allies and the United States, de Gaulle in- sisted at all times on retaining full freedom of action on behalf of France, and he was con- stantly on the verge of being cut off by the The plaque commemorating the headquarters of General de Gaulle at 4 Carlton Gardens during the Second World War. Allies. He harbored a suspicion of the British in particular, believing that they were sur- reptitiously seeking to steal France’s colonial possessions in the Levant. Clementine Churchill, who admired de Gaulle, once cau- tioned him, "General, you must not hate your friends more than you hate your enemies." De Gaulle himself stated famously, "France has no friends, only interests."[24] The situ- ation was nonetheless complex, and de Gaulle’s mistrust of both British and U.S. in- tentions with regards to France was mirrored in particular by a mistrust of the Free French among the U.S. political leadership, who for a long time refused to recognise de Gaulle as the representative of France, preferring to deal with representatives of the Vichy gov- ernment. Roosevelt in particular hoped that it would be possible to wean Pétain away from Germany.[25] Working with the French resistance and supporters in France’s colonial African pos- sessions after the Anglo-U.S. invasion of North Africa in November 1942, de Gaulle moved his headquarters to Algiers in May, 1943. He became first joint head (with the less resolutely independent General Henri Giraud, the candidate preferred by the U.S.) and then sole chairman of the French Com- mittee of National Liberation.[18] At the liberation of France following Oper- ation Overlord, he quickly established the au- thority of the Free French Forces in France, avoiding an Allied Military Government for From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 4 Free French Generals Henri Giraud (left) and Charles de Gaulle sit down after shaking hands in presence of Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill (Casablanca Conference, 14 January 1943). Occupied Territories. He flew into France from the French colony of Algeria a few days before the liberation of Paris, and drove near the front of the liberating forces into the city alongside Allied officials. De Gaulle made a famous speech emphasizing the role of France’s people in her liberation.[26] After his return to Paris, he moved back into his office at the War Ministry, thus proclaiming con- tinuity of the Third Republic and denying the legitimacy of the Vichy regime.[27] He served as President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic starting in September, 1944. As such he sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to re- establish French sovereignty in French In- dochina in 1945. He made Admiral d’Argenlieu High commissioner of French In- dochina and General Leclerc commander-in- chief in French Indochina and commander of the expeditionary corps.[28] Under de Gaulle’s leadership, a joint force of his Free French together with French colonial troops from North Africa enabled France to field an entire army on the western front after Opera- tion Dragoon, the invasion of southern France. This force, the French First Army, helped to liberate almost one third of the country and meant that France actively re- joined the Allies in the struggle against Ger- many. The French First Army captured a large section of German territory after the al- lied invasion thus enabling France to be an active participant in the signing of the Ger- man surrender. Also, through the interven- tion of the British and Americans at Yalta and despite the resistance of the Russians, a French zone of occupation was created in Germany.[29] De Gaulle finally resigned on 20 January 1946, complaining of conflict between the political parties, and disapprov- ing of the draft constitution for the Fourth Republic, which he believed placed too much power in the hands of a parliament with its shifting party alliances.[30] He was suc- ceeded by Félix Gouin (French Section of the Workers’ International, SFIO), then Georges Bidault (Popular Republican Movement, MRP) and finally Léon Blum (SFIO).[31] 1946–58: Out of power De Gaulle’s opposition to the proposed con- stitution failed as the parties of the left sup- ported a parliamentary regime. The second draft constitution narrowly approved at the referendum of October 1946 was even less to de Gaulle’s liking than the first. He then re- turned to his home at Colombey-les-Deux-Eg- lises to write his war memoirs.[11] In April 1947 de Gaulle made a renewed attempt to transform the political scene by creating a Rassemblement du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People, or RPF), but after initial success the movement lost momentum. In May 1953, he withdrew again from active politics, though the RPF lingered until September 1955.[11] He once more retired to his country home to continue his war memoirs, Mémoires de guerre.[11] During this period of formal re- tirement, however, de Gaulle maintained reg- ular contact with past political lieutenants from wartime and RPF days, including sym- pathizers involved in political developments in French Algeria. 1958: Collapse of the Fourth Republic Further information: May 1958 crisis The Fourth Republic was tainted by political instability, failures in Indochina and inability to resolve the Algerian question. It did, however, pass the 1956 loi-cadre Deferre which granted independence to Tunisia and Morocco, while the Premier Pierre Mendès- France put an end to the Indochina War through the Geneva Conference of 1954.[32] On 13 May 1958, settlers seized the gov- ernment buildings in Algiers, attacking what From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 5 they saw as French government weakness in the face of demands among the Arab majority for Algerian independence. A "Committee of Civil and Army Public Security" was created under the presidency of General Jacques Massu, a Gaullist sympathizer. General Raoul Salan, Commander-in-Chief in Algeria, an- nounced on radio that he was assuming pro- visional power, and appealed for "confidence in the Army and its leaders".[33] Under the pressure of Massu, Salan de- clared Vive de Gaulle! from the balcony of the Algiers Government-General building on 15 May.[34] De Gaulle answered two days later that he was ready to "assume the powers of the Republic".[35] Many worried as they saw this answer as support for the army. At a 19 May press conference, de Gaulle asserted again that he was at the disposal of the country. As a journalist expressed the concerns of some who feared that he would violate civil liberties, de Gaulle retorted vehemently: "Have I ever done that? Au con- traire, I have reestablished them when they had disappeared. Who honestly believes that, at age 67, I would start a career as a dictator?" [36] A republican by conviction, de Gaulle maintained throughout the crisis that he would accept power only from the lawfully constituted authorities. The crisis deepened as French paratroops from Algeria seized Corsica and a landing near Paris was discussed (Operation Resur- rection).[37] Political leaders on many sides agreed to support the General’s return to power, except François Mitterrand, Pierre Mendès-France, Alain Savary, the Communist Party, and certain other leftists. On 29 May the French President, René Coty, appealed to the "most illustrious of Frenchmen" to confer with him and to examine what was immedi- ately necessary for the creation of a govern- ment of national safety, and what could be done to bring about a profound reform of the country’s institutions.[38] De Gaulle remained intent on replacing the constitution of the Fourth Republic, which he blamed for France’s political weak- ness. (Indeed he had resigned 12 years previ- ously because he believed the parties made the task of government too difficult.) He set as a condition for his return that he be given wide emergency powers for six months and that a new constitution be proposed to the French people.[39] On 1 June 1958, de Gaulle became Premier and was given emergency powers for six months by the National Assembly.[40] On 28 September 1958, a referendum took place and 79.2 percent of those who voted supported the new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies (Algeria was officially a part of France, not a colony) were given the choice between imme- diate independence and the new constitution. All African colonies voted for the new consti- tution and the replacement of the French Union by the French Community, except Guinea, which thus became the first French African colony to gain independence, at the cost of the immediate ending of all French as- sistance.[41] According to de Gaulle, the head of state should represent "the spirit of the nation" to the nation itself and to the world: "une cer- taine idée de la France" (a certain idea of France).[42] 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic De Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer in 1961 at the Köln/Bonn airport In the November 1958 elections, de Gaulle and his supporters (initially organised in the Union pour la Nouvelle République-Union Démocratique du Travail, then the Union des Démocrates pour la Vème République, and later still the Union des Démocrates pour la République, UDR) won a comfortable major- ity. In December, de Gaulle was elected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 6 President by the electoral college with 78% of the vote, and inaugurated in January 1959.[43] He oversaw tough economic measures to revitalize the country, including the issuing of a new franc (worth 100 old francs).[44] In- ternationally, he rebuffed both the United States and the Soviet Union, pushing for an independent France with its own nuclear weapons, and strongly encouraged a "Free Europe", believing that a confederation of all European nations would restore the past glories of the great European empires.[45] He set about building Franco-German coopera- tion as the cornerstone of the European Eco- nomic Community (EEC), paying the first state visit to Germany by a French head of state since Napoleon.[46] In January 1963, Germany and France signed a treaty of friendship, the Élysée Treaty.[47] France also reduced its dollar reserves, trading them for gold from the U.S. government, thereby redu- cing the US’ economic influence abroad.[48] On 23 November 1959, in a speech in Strasbourg, de Gaulle announced his vision for Europe: “ Oui, c’est l’Europe, depuis l’At- lantique jusqu’à l’Oural, c’est toute l’Europe, qui décidera du destin du monde. ("Yes, it is Europe, from the Atlantic to the Urals, it is Europe, it is the whole of Europe, that will decide the destiny of the world.") ” His expression, "Europe, from the Atlantic to the Urals", has often been cited throughout the history of European integra- tion. It became, for the next ten years, a fa- vourite political rallying cry of de Gaulle’s. His vision stood in contrast to the Atlanticism of the United States and Britain, preferring instead a Europe that would act as a third pole between the United States and the Soviet Union. By including in his ideal of Europe all the territory up to the Urals, de Gaulle was implicitly offering détente to the Soviets, while his phrase was also inter- preted as excluding the United Kingdom from a future Europe. “ A European Europe means that it ex- ists by itself for itself, in other words in the midst of the world - it has its own policy. ” De Gaulle believed that the war in Algeria was not defensible internationally, and he Monument to de Gaulle in Moscow became reconciled to its eventual independ- ence.[49] This stance greatly angered the French settlers and their metropolitan sup- porters, and de Gaulle was forced to sup- press two uprisings in Algeria by French set- tlers and troops, in the second of which (the Generals’ Putsch in April 1961) France her- self was threatened with invasion by rebel paratroops.[50] De Gaulle’s government also covered up the Paris massacre of 1961, is- sued under the orders of the police prefect Maurice Papon. He was also targeted by the settler Organisation de l’armée secrète (OAS) terrorist group and several assassination at- tempts were made on him; the most famous is that of 22 August 1962, when he and his wife narrowly escaped an assassination at- tempt when their Citroën DS was targeted by machine gun fire arranged by Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry at the Petit-Clamart.[51] After a referendum on Algerian self-determination carried out in 1961, de Gaulle arranged a cease-fire in Algeria with the March 1962 Evian Accords, legitimated by another refer- endum a month later.[52] Although the Algeri- an issue was settled, Prime Minister Michel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 7 Debré resigned over the final settlement and was replaced with Georges Pompidou on 14 April 1962.[53] Algeria became independent in July 1962, while an amnesty was later is- sued covering all crimes committed during the war, including the use of torture. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 French settlers left the country. The exodus accelerated after the 5th of July 1962 massacre.[54] In September 1962, De Gaulle sought a constitutional amendment to allow the pres- ident to be directly elected by the people and issued another referendum to this end. After a motion of censure voted by the Parliament on 4 October 1962, de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly and held new elections. Although the left progressed, the Gaullists won an increased majority—this despite op- position from the Christian democratic Popu- lar Republican Movement (MRP) and the Na- tional Centre of Independents and Peasants (CNIP) who criticised de Gaulle’s euroscepti- cism and presidentialism.[55][56] De Gaulle’s proposal to change the election procedure for the French presidency was approved at the referendum on 28 October 1962 by more than three-fifths of voters despite a broad "coalition of no" formed by most of the parties, opposed to a presidential regime. Thereafter the President was to be elected by direct universal suffrage.[57] 1962–68: Politics of grandeur With the Algerian conflict behind him, de Gaulle was able to achieve his two main ob- jectives: to reform and develop the French economy, and to promote an independent for- eign policy and a strong stance on the inter- national stage. This was named by foreign observers the "politics of grandeur" (poli- tique de grandeur).[58] "Thirty glorious years" In the context of a population boom unseen in France since the 18th century, the govern- ment under prime minister Georges Pomp- idou oversaw a rapid transformation and ex- pansion of the French economy. With diri- gisme—a unique combination of capitalism and state-directed economy—the government intervened heavily in the economy, using indicative five-year plans as its main tool. High-profile projects, mostly but not al- ways financially successful, were launched: the extension of Marseille harbor (soon rank- ing third in Europe and first in the Mediter- ranean); the promotion of the Caravelle pas- senger jetliner (a predecessor of Airbus); the decision to start building the supersonic Franco-British Concorde airliner in Toulouse; the expansion of the French auto industry with state-owned Renault at its center; and the building of the first motorways between Paris and the provinces. With these projects, the French economy recorded growth rates unrivalled since the 19th century. In 1964, for the first time in 200 years, France’s GDP overtook that of the United Kingdom, a position it held until the 1990s. This period is still remembered in France with some nostalgia as the peak of the Trente Glorieuses ("Thirty Glorious Years" of economic growth between 1945 and 1974).[59] He vetoed the British application to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1963 because, he said, he thought the United Kingdom lacked the necessary political will to be part of a strong Europe.[60] He further saw Britain as a "Trojan Horse" for the USA.[61] He maintained there were incompat- ibilities between continental European and British economic interests. In addition, he de- manded that the United Kingdom accept all the conditions laid down by the six existing members of the EEC (Belgium, France, Ger- many, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands) and revoke its commitments to countries within its own free trade area. He supported a deep- ening and an acceleration of common market integration rather than expansion.[62] However, in this latter respect, a detailed study of the formative years of the EEC ar- gues that the defence of French economic in- terests, especially in agriculture, in fact played a more dominant role in determining de Gaulle’s stance towards British entry than the various political and foreign policy con- siderations that have often been cited.[63] The General’s attitude was also influenced by resentments which had come about during his exile in Britain during the Second World War. Added to these were fears of an Anglo- American agreement in regard to nuclear weapons – the USA had provided Britain with Polaris missiles the previous year.[64] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 8 Fourth nuclear power France became the world’s fourth nuclear power on 13 February 1960 when a nuclear device was exploded in the Sahara some 700 miles south-south-west of Algiers.[65] Recognition of the People’s Re- public of China De Gaulle was convinced that a strong and independent France could act as a balancing force between the United States and the Soviet Union, a policy seen as little more than posturing and opportunism by his crit- ics, particularly in Britain and the United States, to which France was formally allied. In January 1964, France established diplo- matic relations with the People’s Republic of China (PRC)—the first step towards formal recognition. This was done without first severing links with the Republic of China (Taiwan), led by Chiang Kai-shek. Hitherto the PRC had insisted that all nations abide by a "one China" condition, and at first it was unclear how the matter would be settled.[66] However, the agreement to exchange ambas- sadors was subject to a delay of three months and in February, Chiang Kai-shek resolved the problem by cutting off diplomatic rela- tions with France.[67] Eight years later U.S. President Richard Nixon visited the PRC and began normalising relations - a policy which was confirmed in the Shanghai Communiqué of 28 February 1972.[68] As part of a European tour, Nixon visited France in 1969.[69] He and de Gaulle both shared the same non-Wilsonian approach to world affairs, believing in nations and their relative strengths, rather than in ideologies, international organizations, or multilateral agreements. De Gaulle is famously known for calling the United Nations le Machin ("the thing").[70] Second round In December 1965, de Gaulle returned as president for a second seven-year term, but this time he had to go through a second round of voting in which he defeated François Mitterrand, who did far better than anyone dreamed possible, gaining 45 per cent of the vote.[71] In February 1966, France withdrew from the common NATO military command, but remained within the organization. De Gaulle, haunted by the memories of 1940, wanted France to remain the master of the decisions affecting it, un- like in the 1930s, when France had to follow in step with her British ally. He also declared that all foreign military forces had to leave French territory and gave them one year to redeploy. [72] In September 1966, in a famous speech in Phnom Penh (Cambodia), he expressed France’s disapproval of the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, calling for a U.S. with- drawal from Vietnam as the only way to en- sure peace.[73] As the Vietnam War had its roots in the previous Indochina War, in which the United States had provided France with aid, this speech did little to endear de Gaulle to the Americans, even if their leaders later came to the same conclusion. Empty Chair Crisis During the establishment of the European Community, de Gaulle helped precipitate one of the greatest crises in the history of the EC, the Empty Chair Crisis. It involved the finan- cing of the Common Agricultural Policy, but almost more importantly the use of qualified majority voting in the EC (as opposed to un- animity). In June 1965, after France and the other five members could not agree, de Gaulle withdrew France’s representatives from the EC. Their absence left the organiza- tion essentially unable to run its affairs until the Luxembourg compromise was reached in January 1966.[74] De Gaulle succeeded in in- fluencing the decision-making mechanism written into the Treaty of Rome by insisting on solidarity founded on mutual understand- ing.[75] He vetoed Britain’s entry into the EEC a second time, in June 1967.[76] Six-Day War With tension rising in the Middle East in 1967, de Gaulle on 2 June declared an arms embargo against Israel, just three days be- fore the outbreak of the Six-Day War. This, however, did not affect spare parts for the French military hardware with which the Is- raeli armed forces were equipped.[77] This was an abrupt change in policy. In 1956 France, Britain, and Israel had cooper- ated in an elaborate effort to retake the Suez Canal from Egypt. Israel’s air force operated French Mirage and Mystère jets in the Six- Day War, and its navy was building its new missile boats in Cherbourg. Though paid for, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 9 their transfer to Israel was now blocked by de Gaulle’s government. But they were smuggled out in an operation that drew fur- ther denunciations from the French govern- ment. The last boats took to the sea in December 1969, directly after a major deal between France and now-independent Alger- ia exchanging French armaments for Algeri- an oil.[78] Under de Gaulle, following the independ- ence of Algeria, France embarked on foreign policy more favourable to the Arab side. Gen- eral de Gaulle’s position in 1967 at the time of the Six Day War played a part in France’s newfound popularity in the Arab world.[79] Is- rael turned towards the United States for arms, and toward its own industry. De Gaulle supported the principle of a just settlement for both the Arab and Jewish refugees of the Middle East within the frame- work of the United Nations. This was stated upon the adoption of UN Resolution 242, in his press conference of 27 November 1967 and contained in his letter to David Ben-Guri- on dated 9 January 1968. Nigerian Civil War The Eastern Region of Nigeria declared itself independent under the name of The Independent Republic of Biafra on 30 May 1967. On July 6 the first shots in the Nigerian civil war were fired, marking the start of a conflict would last until January 1970.[80] Bri- tain provided military aid to the Federal Re- public of Nigeria—yet more was made avail- able by the Soviet Union. Under de Gaulle’s leadership, France embarked on a period of interference outside the traditional French zone of influence. A policy geared toward the break-up of Nigeria put Britain and France into opposing camps. Relations between France and Nigeria had been under strain since the third French nuclear explosion in the Sahara in December 1960. From August 1968, when its embargo was lifted, France provided limited and covert support to the breakaway province. Although French arms helped to keep Biafra in action for the final 15 months of the civil war, its involvement was seen as insufficient and counterproduct- ive. The Biafran Chief of Staff stated that the French "did more harm than good by raising false hopes and by providing the British with an excuse to reinforce Nigeria."[81] Vive le Québec libre! A day after his Vive le Québec Libre! speech, Charles de Gaulle attracts a crowd at Montreal’s Expo 67 on 25 July 1967. In July 1967, de Gaulle visited Canada, which was celebrating its centennial with a world’s fair, Expo 67. On 24 July, speaking to a large crowd from a balcony at Montreal’s city hall, de Gaulle shouted Vive le Québec! (Long live Quebec!) then added, Vive le Québec libre! (Long live Free Québec!). The Canadian me- dia harshly criticised the statement, and the Prime Minister of Canada, Lester B. Pearson stated that "Canadians do not need to be lib- erated."[82] De Gaulle left Canada two days later without proceeding to Ottawa as sched- uled. He never returned to Canada. The speech caused outrage in most of Canada; it led to a serious diplomatic rift between the two countries.[83] However, the event was seen as a watershed moment by the Quebec sovereignty movement. In the following year, De Gaulle visited Brittany, where he declaimed a poem written by his uncle (also called Charles de Gaulle) in the Breton language. The speech followed a series of crackdowns on Breton nationalism. De Gaulle was accused of double standards for on the one hand demanding a "free" Que- bec because of its differences from English- speaking Canada, while on the other oppress- ing a regionalist movement in Brittany.[84] In December 1967, claiming continental European solidarity, de Gaulle again rejected British entry into the European Economic Community. The United Kingdom neverthe- less became a member of the EEC in January 1973. [85] Visit to Paraguay During the mid-1960s, de Gaulle paid a visit to Asunción, Paraguay, making him the first From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 10 foreign head of state to ever pay a visit to the country.[86] May 1968 de Gaulle at the inauguration of the German embassy in Paris, February 1968 De Gaulle’s government was criticised within France, particularly for its heavy-handed style. While the written press and elections were free, the state had a monopoly on televi- sion and radio broadcasts (though there were private stations broadcasting from abroad; see ORTF) and the executive occasionally told public broadcasters the bias that they desired on news. In many respects, society was traditionalistic and repressive—this in- cluded the position of women.[87][88] Many factors contributed to a general weariness of sections of the public, particularly the stu- dent youth, which led to the events of May 1968. The huge demonstrations and strikes in France in May 1968 severely challenged de Gaulle’s legitimacy. He made a flying visit to Germany and met with Jacques Massu, the then chief of the French forces occupying Germany, to discuss possible army interven- tion against the protesters.[89] In a private meeting discussing the stu- dents’ and workers’ demands for direct parti- cipation in business and government he coined the phrase "La réforme oui, la chienlit non", which can be politely translated as ’re- form yes, masquerade/chaos no.’ It was a ver- nacular scatological pun meaning ’chie-en-lit, no’. The term is now common parlance in French political commentary, used both crit- ically and ironically referring back to De Gaulle. [90][91] But de Gaulle offered to accept some of the reforms the demonstrators sought. He again considered a referendum to support his moves, but Pompidou persuaded him to dis- solve parliament (in which the government had all but lost its majority in the March 1967 elections) and hold new elections in- stead. The June 1968 elections were a major success for the Gaullists and their allies; when shown the spectre of revolution or even civil war, the majority of the country rallied to him. His party won 358 of 487 seats. Pompidou was suddenly replaced by Maurice Couve de Murville in July.[92] Retirement and death US president Richard Nixon visiting presid- ent Charles de Gaulle one month before de Gaulle’s retirement. Charles de Gaulle resigned the presidency on 28 April 1969,[93] following his defeat on a nationwide referendum. De Gaulle vowed that if the referendum failed, he would resign his office. Despite an eight-minute-long speech by de Gaulle, the referendum failed and he duly resigned, whereupon he was re- placed by Georges Pompidou.[94] De Gaulle retired once again to Colombey- les-Deux-Églises, where he died suddenly in 1970, two weeks before his 80th birthday and in the middle of writing his memoirs. He was generally in very robust health until then, despite an operation on his prostate some years before. He had been sitting in front of the television while waiting for the start of the news when he felt unwell and collapsed. His wife called the doctor and the local vicar, but by the time they arrived he had died: the cause of death was an aneurysm of the aorta.[95] De Gaulle had made arrangements that in- sisted that his funeral would be held at Co- lombey, and that no presidents or ministers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 11 Grave of Charles de Gaulle at Colombey-les- Deux-Églises attend his funeral - only his Compagnons de la Libération. [96] Heads of state had to content themselves with a simultaneous service at Notre-Dame Cathedral.[97] He was carried to his grave on an armoured reconnaissance vehicle, and as he was lowered into the ground the bells of all the churches in France tolled starting from Notre Dame and spreading out from there. He was buried on November 12.[98] He specified that his tombstone bear the simple inscription of his name and his dates of birth and death. Therefore, it simply says: "Charles de Gaulle, 1890–1970".[99] De Gaulle was nearly destitute when he died. When he retired, he did not accept the pensions to which he was entitled as a re- tired president and as a retired general. In- stead, he only accepted a pension to which colonels are entitled. His family had to sell the Boisserie resid- ence. It was purchased by a foundation and is currently the Charles de Gaulle Museum. Private life Charles de Gaulle married Tante Yvonne on 7 April 1921. They had three children: Philippe (born 1921), Élisabeth (1924), who married general Alain de Boissieu, and Anne (1928–1948). Anne had Down’s syndrome and died at 20.[100] One of Charles de Gaulle’s grandsons, also named Charles de Gaulle, was a member of the European Parliament from 1994 to 2004, his last tenure being for the National Front.[101] He is said by Philippe de Gaulle (in several TV shows while promoting his book De Gaulle, mon père), to be ”the shame of the family”, all the more since he shares the name of his famous grandfather. Another grandson, Jean de Gaulle, is a member of the French Parliament.[102] Charles de Gaulle Inter- national Airport France’s largest airport, in Roissy outside Paris, is named Charles de Gaulle Interna- tional Airport in his honour. Further information: Things named after Charles de Gaulle Works French editions • La Discorde Chez l’Ennemi (1924) • Histoire des Troupes du Levant (1931) Written by Major de Gaulle and Major Yvon, with Staff Colonel de Mierry collaborating in the preparation of the final text. • Le Fil de l’Épée (1932) • Vers l’Armée de Métier (1934) • La France et son Armée (1938) • Trois Études (1945) (Rôle Historique des Places Fortes; Mobilisation Economique à l’Étranger; Comment Faire une Armée de Métier) followed by the Memorandum of 26 January 1940. • Mémoires de Guerre • Volume I - L’Appel 1940–1942 (1954) • Volume II - L’Unité, 1942–1944 (1956) • Volume III - Le Salut, 1944–1946 (1959) • Mémoires d’Espoir • Volume I - Le Renouveau 1958–1962 (1970) • Discours et Messages • Volume I - Pendant la Guerre 1940–1946 (1970) • Volume II - Dans l’attente 1946–1958 (1970) • Volume III - Avec le Renouveau 1958–1962 (1970) • Volume IV - Pour l’Effort 1962–1965 (1970) • Volume V - Vers le Terme 1966–1969 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 12 English translations • The Enemy’s House Divided (La Discorde chez l’ennemi). Tr. by Robert Eden. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2002. • The Edge of the Sword (Le Fil de l’Épée). Tr. by Gerard Hopkins. Faber, London, 1960 Criterion Books, New York, 1960 • The Army of the Future (Vers l’Armée de Métier). Hutchinson, London-Melbourne, 1940. Lippincott, New York, 1940 • France and Her Army (La France et son Armée). Tr. by F.L. Dash. Hutchinson London, 1945. Ryerson Press, Toronto, 1945 • War Memoirs: Call to Honour, 1940–1942 (L’Appel). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York, 1955. • War Memoirs: Unity, 1942–1944 (L’Unité). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon and Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes). • War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944–1946’ (Le Salut). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon and Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes). De Gaulle’s Second Government, 21 Decem- ber 1945 - 26 January 1946 • Charles de Gaulle: Chairman of the Provisional Government • Georges Bidault: Minister of Foreign Affairs • Edmond Michelet: Minister of Armies • Charles Tillon: Minister of Armaments • Adrien Tixier: Minister of the Interior • René Pleven: Minister of Finance • François Billoux: Minister of National Economy • Marcel Paul: Minister of Industrial Production • Ambroise Croizat: Minister of Labour • Pierre-Henri Teitgen: Minister of Justice • Paul Giacobbi: Minister of National Education • Laurent Casanova: Minister of Veterans and War Victims • François Tanguy-Prigent: Minister of Agriculture and Supply • Jacques Soustelle: Minister of Colonies • Jules Moch: Minister of Public Works and Transport • Robert Prigent: Minister of Population • Raoul Dautry: Minister of Reconstruction and Town Planning • Eugène Thomas: Minister of Posts • André Malraux: Minister of Information • Vincent Auriol: Minister of State • Francisque Gay: Minister of State • Louis Jacquinot: Minister of State • Maurice Thorez: Minister of State De Gaulle’s Third Min- istry, 9 June 1958 - 8 January 1959 • Charles de Gaulle: President of the Council and Minister of National Defense • Maurice Couve de Murville: Minister of Foreign Affairs • Émile Pelletier: Minister of the Interior • Antoine Pinay: Minister of Finance and interim Minister of Public Works, Transport, and Tourism • Édouard Ramonet: Minister of Industry • Paul Bacon: Minister of Labour • Edmond Michelet: Minister of Veterans and War Victims • Michel Debré: Minister of Justice • Jean Berthoin: Minister of National Education • Roger Houdet: Minister of Agriculture • Bernard Cornut-Gentille: Minister of Overseas France • Robert Buron: Minister of Public Works, Transport, and Tourism • Eugène Thomas: Minister of Posts • Édouard Ramonet: Minister of Commerce • Pierre Sudreau: Minister of Construction • Max Lejeune: Minister of Sahara • Guy Mollet: Minister of State • Pierre Pflimlin: Minister of State • Félix Houphouët-Boigny: Minister of State • Louis Jacquinot: Minister of State Changes • 12 June 1958: André Malraux enters the cabinet as Minister of Radio, Television, and Press. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 13 • 14 June 1958: Guy Mollet becomes Minister of General Civil Servants Status. • 7 July 1958: Bernard Chenot enters the cabinet as Minister of Public Health and Population. Jacques Soustelle succeeds Malraux as Minister of Information. • 23 July 1958: Antoine Pinay becomes Minister of Economic Affairs, remaining also Minister of Finance. See also • Gaullism • Gaullist Party • Names and terms of address used for Charles de Gaulle • Things named after Charles de Gaulle Notes [1] "Cinquième République". Assemblée Nationale Française. 2008. http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/ histoire/legislatures.asp. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [2] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=162. Retrieved on 2009-01-11. [3] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/dossier/ 18juin/temoignages/appel.htm. Retrieved on 2009-01-11. [4] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=163. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [5] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=23. Retrieved on 2009-01-11. [6] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=26. Retrieved on 2009-01-11. [7] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=26&var_recherche=national&page=2. Retrieved on 2009-01-11. [8] Crawley p. 13–14 [9] Crawley comments further: ’Henri’s theory may have been known in scholastic circles, for in November 1940, a group of Paris students marched around the Arc de Triomphe each carrying two poles (’deux gaules’) as a gesture of defiance to the uncomprehending Germans’. [10] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=1077. Retrieved on 2009-01-11. [11]^ "Charles de Gaulle". Grolier Online. http://www.grolier.com/wwii/ wwii_degaulle.html. Retrieved on 2008-12-27. [12]Dallas, Gregor (2005). 1945: The War That Never Ended. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 90. ISBN 0-300-10980-6. [13]Gorman, Robert F. (ed.) (2008) "Charles de Gaulle" Great Lives from History: The 20th Century Salem Press, Pasadena, Calif., ISBN 978-1-58765-345-2 [14]Debray, Régis (1994) Charles de Gaulle: Futurist of the Nation translated by John Howe, Verso, New York, ISBN 0-86091-622-7; a translation of Debray, Régis (1990) A demain de Gaulle Gallimard, Paris, ISBN 2-07-072021-7 [15] "Index of Surnames: ?Polish Order of the Virtuti Militari? Recipients (1792–1992)". Z Wesolowski and FEEFHS. 1997. http://feefhs.org/pl/vm/vm-d.html. Retrieved on 2008-12-28. [16] "Hitler claimed total credit for the success of the campaign in the West. The plan for it came from him, he said. "I have again and again", he told us, "read Colonel De Gaulle’s book on methods of modern warfare employing fully motorized units, and I have learned a great deal from it"." in Albert Speer, Inside The Third Reich, Simon & Shuster, ISBN 0-684-82949-5, p.170 [17]Account of Jean-Louis Loubet del Bayle’s book on the non-conformists of the 1930s on the EHESS’s website (French) [18]^ Brad DeLong (2000-05-29). "Charles de Gaulle". University of California at Berkeley. http://econ161.berkeley.edu/ TCEH/charlesdegaulle.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. [19] "Cabinet Paul Reynaud". Assemblée Nationale Française. 2008. http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/ histoire/gvt3rep.asp#paulreynaud. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [20]Roussel, Eric (2002). Charles de Gaulle. Paris: Editions Gallimard. p. 113. ISBN 2070752410. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 14 [21]Monnet, Jean (1976-01-01). Memoires. Paris: Arthème Fayard. pp. 20–21. ISBN 2-213-00402-1. [22]Gates, Eleanor M. (1981). End of the Affair - The Collapse of the Anglo-French Alliance, 1939–40. London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 230. ISBN 0-04-940063-0. [23]Roussel, Eric (2002). Charles de Gaulle. Paris: Editions Gallimard. p. 112. ISBN 2-07-075241-0. [24]Peter Yapp, ed (April 1983). The Travellers’ Dictionary of Quotation: Who Said What, About Where?. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul. pp. 143. ISBN 0710009925, 9780710009920. [25]Berthon, Simon (2001-06-04). Allies at War: Churchill V Roosevelt V De Gaulle. London: Collins. p. 108. ISBN 0007116225. [26] "Speech made by General de Gaulle at the Hotel de Ville in Paris on August 25th 1944". Fondation Charles de Gaulle. 2008. http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=514. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [27] "1944-1946 : Liberation". Fondation et Institut Charles de Gaulle. 2008. http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=370. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [28]Anthony Clayton Three Marshals of France. p. 124 [29]Berthon, p.325 [30] "1944-1946 :Liberation". Fondation et Institut Charles de Gaulle. 2008. http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=370. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [31] "Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Française". Assemblée Nationale Française. 2008. http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/ histoire/legislatures-CFLN- Gouvernementprovisoire-et- constituantes.asp. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [32] "La France face à la décolonisation?de 1945 à 1962". CPRD Champagne- Ardenne. 2008. http://www.crdp-reims.fr/ cinquieme/decolonisation.htm. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [33] "Generals in Algiers revolt against Paris – Demand for "Government of Public Safety"", The Times, 14 May 1958 [34] "Vive de Gaulle – General Salan’s Public Utterance", The Times, 16 May 1958 [35] "General de Gaulle’s Bid for Authority – Ready to Assume Powers of Rebublic", The Times, 16 May 1958 [36] "Party System has Failed State and People – General de Gaulle Explains his Views", The Times, 20 May 1958 [37] "General Massu - Obituary", The Times, 29 October 2002 * [1] [38] "President Coty speaks of Crumbling Republic", The Times, 30 May 1958 [39]As he commissioned the new constitution and was responsible for its overall framework, de Gaulle is sometimes described as the author of the constitution. De Gaulle’s political ideas were written into a constitution by Michel Debré who then guided the text through the enactment process. Thus while the constitution reflects de Gaulle’s ideas, Michel Debré was the actual author of the text. [40] "Gen de Gaulle given a majority of 105 – Full powers demanded for six months", The Times, 02 June 1958 [41] "Sweeping Vote for General de Gaulle – 4:1 Majority says "Yes" to new Constitution", The Times, 29 September 1958 [42]The citation in French is taken from Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, tome 1, Plon, 1954[2] [43] "Landslide Vote Repeated for de Gaulle – President of Fifth Republic – Sweeping Powers", The Times, 22 Dec 1958 [44] "New Year Brings in New Franc", The Times, 2 Jan 1960 [45]Crawley p.411, p.428 [46] "Germans Give General de Gaulle a Hero’s Welcome", The Times, 6 Sep 1962 [47]Crawley p.422 [48]Crawley p.439 [49] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle - De Gaulle and Algeria". http://www.charles-de- gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=180. Retrieved on 2009-01-18. [50] "Rebels Plot to Seize Power in Paris - Sirens to Warn Citizens of Algeria Parachutists - General De Gaulle Assumes Dictatorial Powers", The Times, 24 Apr 1961 [51]Crawley p.381 [52] "Vote Of Confidence In General De Gaulle - Conclusive Referendum Verdict On Algeria Peace", The Times, 9 Apr 1962 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 15 [53] "M. Pompidou Takes Over from M. Debre – Few Changes in New Cabinet", The Times, 16 Apr 1962 [54]Pied-noirs breathe life back into Algerian tourism [55] "De Gaulle Challenge to Parliament – To Retire if Referendum not Approved – Call to Nation before Debate on Censure Motion", The Times, 5 Oct 1962 [56] "De Gaulle against the Politicians – Clear Issue for October Referendum – Assembly Election Likely after Solid Censure Vote", The Times, 6 Oct 1962 [57] ""Yes" Reply for Gen. De Gaulle – Over 60 p.c. of Valid Votes – President Likely to Keep Office", The Times, 29 Oct 1962 [58]Kolodziej, Edward A (1974). French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur. New Haven, Conn: Cornell University Press. p. 618. ISBN 0-300-10980-6. [59]Haine, W. Scott (1974). Culture and Customs of France. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. p. 315. ISBN 0313328927, 9780313328923. [60] "How the EU was built". 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/ 1055729.stm. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. [61] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=375. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. [62] "European NAvigator (ENA) - General de Gaulle’s first veto". http://www.ena.lu/. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [63]Moravscik, Andrew (December 2008). The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801435099. [64] "European NAvigator (ENA) - General de Gaulle’s first veto". http://www.ena.lu/. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [65] "Weekend of Rejoicing in France", The Times, 15 Feb 1960 [66] "Recognition of Peking by France – Relations with two regimes – Chiang protest but no break", The Times, 28 Jan 1964 [67] "Chiang Breaks with France", The Times, 11 Feb 1964 [68] "Nixon’s China’s Visit and "Sino-U.S. Joint Communiqué". http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/ziliao/3602/ 3604/t18006.htm. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. [69] "De Gaulle’s Warm Welcome to Nixon", The Times, 1 Mar 1969 [70] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=497. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. [71] "France Again Elects Gen. De Gaulle – M. Mitterrand Concedes Within 80 Minutes – Centre Votes Evenly Divided", The Times, 20 Dec 1965 [72]Crawley p.431 [73] "Address by the President of the French Republic (general de Gaulle), Phnom Penh, Cambodia, September 1,1966". Fondation Charles de Gaulle. 2008. http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=530. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [74] "France Ends Boycott of Common Market – No Winners or Losers after Midnight Agreement", The Times, 31 Jan 1966 [75] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle – De Gaulle and Europe". http://www.charles-de- gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=178. Retrieved on 2009-01-18. [76] "European NAvigator (ENA) - General de Gaulle’s second veto". http://www.ena.lu/. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [77] "French Emphasis on Long-Term Issues", The Times, 7 Jun 1967 [78]The Cherbourg Boats by Doron Geller [79] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle - De Gaulle and the Third World". http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=180. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [80] "920 Days of Fighting, Death and Hunger", The Times, 12 Jan 1970 [81]Saha, Santosh C. (2006). Perspectives on Contemporary Ethnic Conflict: Primal Violence Or the Politics of Conviction?. Lanham MD: Lexington Books. pp. 344, p.184-184. ISBN 0739110853, 9780739110850. [82]CBC archives [83] "Gen De Gaulle Rebuked by Mr Pearson – Canada Rejects Efforts to Destroy Unity – Quebec Statements Unacceptable", The Times, 26 Jul 1967 [84]Peter Berresford Ellis, The Celtic Dawn, Constable, London, 1993, pp. 62. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 16 [85] "Just a Normal Winter’s Day in Dover", The Times, 2 Jan 1973 [86]Gunther, John. Inside South America. Harper & Row. Page 241. [87] "Les femmes et le pouvoir". http://www.histoire-politique.fr/ index.php?numero=01&rub=dossier&item=7. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. [88] ’Les femmes et le pouvoir’ notes: ’It should not be forgotten that of the first eleven governments of the Fifth Republic, four contained no women whatsoever. Furthermore, in May 1968, the executive was 100 per cent male. [89] "Autocrat of the Grand Manner", The Times, 28 Apr 1969 [90]Crawley p.454 [91]Crawley (p.454) also writes that de Gaulle was undoubtedly using the term in his barrack-room style to mean ’shit in the bed’. De Gaulle had said it first in Bucharest while on an official visit from which he returned on 19 May 1968. Pompidou told the press that de Gaulle used the phrase after the Cabinet Meeting on 19 May. [92] "Dropping the Pilot", The Times, 11 Jul 1968 [93] "Press Release re Resignation". Fondation Charles de Gaulle. 2008. http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/ article.php3?id_article=532. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. [94]http://www.upi.com/Audio/ Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/ Chappaquiddick/12303189849225-7/ #title "Charles de Gaulle Defeated: 1969 Year in Review, UPI.com" [95] "World Leaders to Gather in Paris to Honour General de Gaulle", The Times, 11 November 1970 [96] "Testament de Charles de Gaulle, 16 janvier 1952". Histoire de France et d’ailleurs. http://www.histoire-de-france- et-d-ailleurs.com/articles/Testaments/ TestamentdeGaulle.htm. Retrieved on 2009-02-03. [97]http://www.upi.com/Audio/ Year_in_Review/Events-of-1970/ Apollo-13/12303235577467-2/#title "De Gaulle Dies: 1970 Year in Review, UPI.com" [98] "De Gaulle Dies: 1970 Year in Review, UPI.com" [99] "Fondation Charles de Gaulle - Retirement". http://www.charles-de- gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=377. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [100]"Find a Grave – Georges Pompidou". http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/ fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=8093. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [101]"Site non officiel du Parti socialiste français". http://www.psinfo.net/ elections/municipales/2001/pariscopie/ listes/fn.php3. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. [102]"Assemblée Nationale". http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/ tribun/fiches_id/1437.asp. Retrieved on 2009-01-15. References • Crawley, Aidan (1969). De Gaulle. London: The Literary Guild. ASIN B000KXPUCK. • Haine, W. Scott (2006). Culture and Customs of France. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313328927. • Saha, Santosh C. (2006). Perspectives on Contemporary Ethnic Conflict: Primal Violence or the Politics of Conviction?. Lexington Books. ISBN 0739110853. • Speer, Albert (1997). Inside the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684829495. External links • Fondation Charles-de-Gaulle • Charles de Gaulle World History Database • News, speech excerpts and quotations • De Gaulle’s policy in the Middle East • Works by or about Charles de Gaulle in libraries (WorldCat catalog) • Speeches (in original French) collected by the Charles De Gaulle foundation • Biographical elements from the Charles De Gaulle foundation • Charles de Gaulle - World War 2 Directory • http://www.memorial-charlesdegaulle.fr/ en/index.html Mémorial Charles de Gaulle a museum on the twentieth century Persondata NAME de Gaulle, Charles André Joseph Marie ALTERNATIVE NAMES SHORT DESCRIPTION French politician From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Charles de Gaulle 17 Political offices Preceded by Pierre Laval (as Prime Minister) Chairman of the Provisional Government of France 1944–1946 Preceded by Philippe Pétain (as Head of State) Co-Prince of Andorra 1944–1946 with Ramon Iglesias i Navarri Succeeded by Félix Gouin Preceded by Pierre Pflimlin Prime Minister of France 1958–1959 Succeeded by Michel Debré Preceded by Pierre de Chevigné Minister of National Defense 1958–1959 Succeeded by Pierre Guillaumat Presidents of the French Repub- lic 1959–1969 Succeeded by Alain Poher Preceded by René Coty Co-Prince of Andorra 1959–1969 with Ramon Iglesias i Navarri Succeeded by Georges Pompidou Party political offices New title Gaullist Party Presidential Can- didate 1958 (won); 1965 (won) Succeeded by Georges Pompidou DATE OF BIRTH 22 November 1890 PLACE OF BIRTH Lille DATE OF DEATH 9 November 1970 PLACE OF DEATH Colombey-les-deux-Églises Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" Categories: 1890 births, 1970 deaths, Charles de Gaulle, De Gaulle family, French anti-com- munists, French conservatives, French generals, Heads of state of France, French military personnel of World War I, French military personnel of World War II, French monarchists, French Roman Catholics, French people of Irish descent, Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, Ordre de la Libération, People from Lille, People of the Algerian War, Presidents of France, Prime Ministers of France, Recipients of the Royal Victorian Chain, Recipients of Virtuti Militari, Time magazine Persons of the Year, World War II political lead- ers, French prisoners of war, Saint-Cyrians, Parents of people with Down syndrome, People sentenced to death in absentia, World War I prisoners of war held by Germany This page was last modified on 19 May 2009, at 08:12 (UTC). 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